Battle of Plassey
Battle of Plassey was a major turning point in modern Indian history that led to the consolidation of the British rule in India. This battle was fought between the East India Company headed by Robert Clive and the Nawab of Bengal (Siraj-Ud-Daulah) and his French Troop. This battle is often termed as the ‘decisive event’ which became the source of ultimate rule of the British in India. The battle occurred during the late reign of Mughal empire (called later Mughal Period). Mughal emperor Alamgir-II was ruling the empire when the Battle of Plassey took place.
A few historians, while answering the question as to when did the British rule start in India, cite the Battle of Plassey as the source.
What is the Battle of Plassey?
It is a battle fought between the East India Company force headed by Robert Clive and Siraj-Ud-Daulah (Nawab of Bengal). The rampant misuse by EIC officials of trade privileges infuriated Siraj. The continuing misconduct by EIC against Siraj-Ud-Daulah led to the battle of Plassey in 1757.
Causes of the Battle of Plassey
Majorly, the reasons for the Battle of Plassey to take place were:
- The rampant misuse of the trade privileges given to the British by the Nawab of Bengal
- Non-payment of tax and duty by the workers of the British East India Company
Other reasons that supported the coming of this battle were:
- Fortification of Calcutta by the British without the Nawab’s permission
- Misleading Nawab on various fronts by British
- An asylum was provided to Nawab’s enemy Krishna Das
The East India Company had a strong presence in India majorly at Fort St. George, Fort William and Bombay Castle.
The British resorted to having an alliance with the Nawabs and princes in exchange for security against any form of external and internal attack and were promised concessions in return for their safety and protection.
The problem arose when the alliance was disrupted under the rule of Nawab of Bengal (Siraj-Ud-Daulah). The Nawab started seizing the fort of Calcutta and imprisoning many British Officials in June 1756. The prisoners were kept in a dungeon at Fort William. This incident is called the Black Hole of Calcutta since only a handful of the prisoners survived the captivity where over a hundred people were kept in a cell meant for about 6 people. The East India company planned an attack and Robert Clive bribed Mir Jafar, the commander-in-chief of the Nawab’s army, and also promised him to make him Nawab of Bengal.
The Battle of Plassey was fought at Palashi, on the banks of Bhagirathi river near Calcutta on June 23, 1757.
After three hours of intense fighting, there was a heavy downpour. One of the reasons for the defeat of Nawab was the lack of planning to protect their weapons during the heavy downpour which turned the table in favour of the British army apart from the major reason being the treachery of Mir Jafar.
Siraj-Ud-Daulah’s army with 50,000 soldiers, 40 cannons and 10 war elephants was defeated by 3,000 soldiers of Robert Clive. The battle ended in 11 hours and Siraj-Ud-Daulah fled from the battle post his defeat.
According to Robert Clive, 22 men died and 50 were injured from the British troops. The Nawab army lost about 500 men, including several key officials and many of them even suffered several casualties.
Who Fought the Battle of Plassey?
Participants of Battle of Plassey |
Role in the Battle of Plassey |
Siraj-Ud-Daulah (Nawab of Bengal) |
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Robert Clive (EIC) |
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Mir Jafar (Commander-in-Chief of Nawab’s army) |
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Rai Durlabh (One of the Commanders of the Nawabs Army) |
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Jagat Seth (Influential Banker) |
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Omi Chand (Bengal Merchant) |
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Effects of Battle of Plassey
Apart from the British getting political power of Northern India but only after Nawabs, there were several other effects in many forms that came out as a result of the Battle of Plassey. They can be categorised as:
- Political Effects
- Economic Effects
Political Effects
- The Battle of Plassey resulted at the end of the French forces.
- Mir Jafar was crowned as the Nawab of Bengal
- Mir Jafar was unhappy with the position and instigated the Dutch to attack the British in order to consolidate his foundation.
- Battle of Chinsura was fought between the Dutch and British forces on November 25, 1759.
- The British installed Mir Qasim as the Nawab of Bengal.
- The British became the paramount European power in Bengal.
- Robert Clive was titled “Lord Clive”, Baron of Plassey and also obtained a seat in the British House of Commons.
Economic Effects
- The economy of India was affected severely.
- Post the victory, the British started imposing severe rules and regulations on the inhabitants of Bengal in the name of tax collection.
What is the reason for the Battle of Plassey?
The Battle of Plassey took place when Nawab of Bengal Siraj-ud-Daulah did not like the uncontrolled use of privileges by the East India Company’s officials. Also, the workers of the company stopped paying the taxes that became one of the reasons for the Battle of Plassey.
Who fought the Battle of Plassey?
The Battle of Plassey was fought between Siraj-Ud-Daulah who was then the Bengal Nawab and East India Company forces headed by Robert Clive.
When did the Battle of Plassey take place?
The Battle of Plassey took place in 1757.
Why is the Battle of Plassey famous?
The Battle of Plassey is said to be historically famous as it is cited as the main source of the British rule in India.
Battle of Buxar 1764
With the advent of Europeans in India, the British East India Company gradually conquered Indian territories. The Battle of Buxar is one such confrontation between the British army and their Indian counterparts which paved the way for the British to rule over India for the next 183 years.
What was the Battle of Buxar?
It was a battle fought between the English Forces, and a joint army of the Nawab of Oudh, Nawab of Bengal, and the Mughal Emperor. The battle was the result of misuse of trade privileges granted by the Nawab of Bengal and also the colonialist ambitions of East India Company
Background of the Battle of Buxar
Before the battle of Buxar, one more battle was fought. It was the Battle of Plassey, that gave the British a firm foothold over the region of Bengal. As a result of the Battle of Plassey, Siraj-Ud-Daulah was dethroned as the Nawab of Bengal and was replaced by Mir Jafar (Commander of Siraj’s Army.) After Mir Jafar became the new Bengal nawab, the British made him their puppet but Mir Jafar got involved with Dutch East India Company. Mir Qasim (son-in-law of Mir Jafar) was supported by the British to become the new Nawab and under the pressure of the Company, Mir Jafar decided to resign in favour of Mir Kasim. A pension of Rs 1,500 per annum was fixed for Mir Jafar.
A few reasons which were the key to the Battle of Buxar are given below:
- Mir Qasim wanted to be independent and shifted his capital to Munger Fort from Calcutta.
- He also hired foreign experts to train his army, some of whom were in direct conflict with the British.
- He treated Indian merchants and English as same, without granting any special privileges for the latter.
- These factors fuelled the English to overthrow him and war broke out between Mir Kasim and the Company in 1763.
Who were the combatants of the Battle of Buxar?
The table below will inform the IAS aspirants to know the participants of the battle of Buxar and their significance on the battle:
Participants of Battle of Buxar |
Role in the Battle of Buxar |
Mir Qasim – (Administering Bengal in place of Mir Jafar – Nawab of Bengal) |
He disliked misuse of dastak, farmans by the English, hence tried to conspire against them by forming an alliance with Nawab of Awadh and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II |
Shuja-Ud-Daulah – Nawab of Awadh (Oudh) |
Was a part of a confederacy with Mir Qasim and Shah Alam-II |
Shah Alam II – Mughal Emperor |
He wanted to overthrow English from Bengal |
Hector Munro – British Army Major |
He led the battle from the English side |
Signed the treaties with Shuja-Ud-Daulah and Shah Alam-II after winning the battle |
The Course of Battle of Buxar
When the battle broke out in 1763, English gained successive victories at Katwah, Murshidabad, Giria, Sooty and Munger. Mir Kasim fled to Awadh (or Oudh) and formed a confederacy with the Shuja-Ud-Daulah (Nawab of Awadh) and Shah Alam II (Mughal Emperor). Mir Qasim wanted to recover Bengal from the English. Read the course of battle in the points below:
- Mir Qasim fled to Oudh
- He planned a confederacy with Shuja-Ud-Daula and Shah Alam II in a final bid to overthrow the English from Bengal
- Mir Qasim’s soldiers met the English army troops directed by Major Munro in 1764.
- The joint armies of Mir Qasim were defeated by the British.
- Mir Qasim absconded from the battle and the other two surrendered to the English army.
- The battle of Buxar ended with the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765.
Result of Battle of Buxar
- Mir Qasim, Shuja-Ud-Daula and Shah Alam-II lost the battle on October 22, 1764.
- Major Hector Munro won a decisive battle and Robert Clive had a major role in that.
- English became a great power in northern India.
- Mir Jafar (Nawab of Bengal) handed over districts of Midnapore, Burdwan and Chittagong to the English for the maintenance of their army.
- The English were also permitted duty-free trade in Bengal, except for a duty of two per cent on salt.
- After the death of Mir Jafar, his minor son, Najimud-Daula, was appointed nawab, but the real power of administration lay in the hands of the naib-subahdar, who could be appointed or dismissed by the English.
- Clive made political settlements with Emperor Shah Alam II and Shuja-Ud-Daula of Awadh in the Treaty of Allahabad.
What is the Treaty of Allahabad (1765)?
Two important treaties were concluded in Allahabad between Robert Clive, Shuja-Ud-Daulah & Shah Aam-II. The key-points of the treaty of Allahabad are given below:
Treaty of Allahabad between Robert Clive & Shuja-Ud-Daulah:
- Shuja had to surrender Allahabad and Kara to Shah Alam II
- He was made to pay Rs 50 lakh to the Company as war indemnity; and
- He was made to give Balwant Singh (Zamindar of Banaras) full possession of his estate.
Treaty of Allahabad between Robert Clive & Shah Alam-II:
- Shah Alam was commanded to reside at Allahabad which was ceded to him by Shuja-Ud-Daulah under the Company’s protection
- The emperor had to issue a Farman granting the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the East India Company in lieu of an annual payment of Rs 26 lakh;
- Shah Alam had to abide by a provision of Rs 53 lakh to the Company in return for the Nizamat functions (military defence, police, and administration of justice) of the said provinces.
Key-Facts about Battle of Buxar
After the Battle of Buxar, English did not annex Awadh even after Shuja-Ud-Daulah was defeated because it would have placed the Company under an obligation to protect an extensive land frontier from the Afghan and the Maratha invasions.
- Shuja-Ud-Daulah became a firm friend of British and made Awadh a buffer state between English and foreign invasions.
- The treaty of Allahabad with Mughal Emperor Shah Alam-II made emperor a useful ‘rubber stamp’ of the Company. Besides, the emperor’s Farman legalised the political gains of the Company in Bengal.
There were three Anglo-Maratha wars (or Maratha Wars) fought between the late 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century between the British and the Marathas. This article will give details about the First Anglo-Maratha War. Candidates can also download First Anglo-Maratha War notes PDF from the link provided below.
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775 – 1782)
Background and course
- The third Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao died in 1761 due to shock after his defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat.
- His son Madhavrao I succeeded him. Madhavrao I was able to recover some of the Maratha power and territories which they had lost in the Battle of Panipat.
- The English were aware of the growing Maratha power.
- When Madhavrao I died, there was a tussle for power in the Maratha camp.
- His brother Narayanrao became the Peshwa but his uncle Raghunathrao wanted to become the Peshwa. For this, he sought the help of the English
- So, the Treaty of Surat in 1775 was signed according to which Raghunathrao ceded Salsette and Bassein to the English and in return he was given 2500 soldiers.
- The British and army of Raghunathrao attacked the Peshwa and won.
- The British Calcutta Council under Warren Hastings annulled this treaty and a new treaty, the Treaty of Purandhar was signed in 1776 between the Calcutta Council and Nana Phadnavis, a Maratha minister.
- Accordingly, Raghunathrao was given a pension only and Salsette was retained by the British.
- But the British establishment at Bombay violated this treaty and sheltered Raghunathrao.
- In 1777, Nana Phadnavis went against his treaty with the Calcutta Council and granted a port on the west coast to the French.
- This led the British to advance a force towards Pune. There was a battle at Wadgaon near Pune in which the Marathas under Mahadji Shinde secured a decisive victory over the English.
- The English were forced to sign the Treaty of Wadgaon in 1779.
- There was a series of battles at the end of which the Treaty of Salbai was signed in 1782. This ended the first Anglo-Maratha war.
Results of the First Anglo-Maratha War:
Results
- The East India Company retained Salsette and Broach.
- It also obtained a guarantee from the Marathas that they would retake their possessions in the Deccan from Hyder Ali of Mysore.
- The Marathas also promised that they would not grant any more territories to the French.
- Raghunathrao was to receive a pension of Rs.3 lakh every year.
- All territories taken by the British after the Treaty of Purandhar were ceded back to the Marathas.
- The English accepted Madhavrao II (son of Narayanrao) as the Peshwa.
Second Anglo Maratha War for UPSC
There were three Anglo-Maratha wars (or Maratha Wars) fought between the late 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century between the British and the Marathas. In the end, the Maratha power was destroyed and British supremacy established.
Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803 – 1805)
Background and course
- After Tipu Sultan’s Mysore was captured by the British in 1799, the Marathas were the only major Indian power left outside of British domination.
- At that time, the Maratha Confederacy consisted of five major chiefs, the Peshwas at Pune, the Gaekwads at Baroda, the Holkars at Indore, the Scindias at Gwalior and the Bhonsles at Nagpur.
- There were internal squabbles among themselves.
- Baji Rao II (son of Raghunathrao) was installed as the Peshwa after the death of Madhavrao II.
- In the Battle of Poona in 1802, Yashwantrao Holkar, the chief of the Holkars of Indore defeated the Peshwas and the Scindias.
- Baji Rao II sought British protection and signed the Treaty of Bassein with them.
- As per this treaty, he ceded territory to the British and agreed to the maintenance of British troops there.
- The Scindias and the Bhonsles did not accept this treaty and this caused the second Anglo-Maratha war in central India in 1803.
- The Holkars also joined the battle against the English at a later stage.
Result of Second Anglo Maratha War
Results
- All the Maratha forces were defeated by the British in these battles.
- The Scindias signed the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon in 1803 through which the British got the territories of Rohtak, Ganga-Yamuna Doab, Gurgaon, Delhi Agra region, Broach, some districts in Gujarat, parts of Bundelkhand and Ahmadnagar fort.
- The Bhonsles signed the Treaty of Deogaon in 1803 as per which the English acquired Cuttack, Balasore and area west of Wardha River.
- The Holkars signed the Treaty of Rajghat in 1805 according to which they gave up Tonk, Bundi and Rampura to the British.
- As a result of the war, large parts of central India came under British control.
There were three Anglo-Maratha wars (or Maratha Wars) fought between the late 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century between the British and the Marathas. In the end, the Maratha power was destroyed and British supremacy established.
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817 – 1818)
Background and course
- After the second Anglo-Maratha war, the Marathas made one last attempt to rebuild their old prestige.
- They wanted to retake all their old possessions from the English.
- They were also unhappy with the British residents’ interference in their internal matters.
- The chief reason for this war was the British conflict with the Pindaris whom the British suspected were being protected by the Marathas.
- The Maratha chiefs Peshwa Bajirao II, Malharrao Holkar and Mudhoji II Bhonsle forged a united front against the English.
- Daulat Rao Shinde, the fourth major Maratha chief was pressured diplomatically to stay away.
- But the British victory was swift.
Results
- The Treaty of Gwalior was signed in 1817 between Shinde and the British, even though he had not been involved in the war. As per this treaty, Shinde gave up Rajasthan to the British. The Rajas of Rajputana remained the Princely States till 1947 after accepting British sovereignty.
- The Treaty of Mandasor was signed between the British and the Holkar chief in 1818. An infant was placed on the throne under British guardianship.
- The Peshwa surrendered in 1818. He was dethroned and pensioned off to a small estate in Bithur (near Kanpur). Most parts of his territory became part of the Bombay Presidency.
- His adopted son, Nana Saheb became one of the leaders of the Revolt of 1857 at Kanpur.
- The territories annexed from the Pindaris became the Central Provinces under British India.
- This war led to the end of the Maratha Empire. All the Maratha powers surrendered to the British.
- An obscure descendant of Chhatrapati Shivaji was placed as the ceremonial head of the Maratha Confederacy at Satara.
- This was one of the last major wars fought and won by the British. With this, the British controlled most parts of India barring Punjab and Sindh directly or indirectly.
Reasons for Maratha Loss
- Lack of unity among the Maratha chiefs themselves.
- Lack of good relations with other Indian princes and ruling dynasties.
- Failure to understand the British political and diplomatic strengths.
- Anglo-Mysore Wars were a series of four wars between the British and the Kingdom of Mysore in the latter half of the 18th century in Southern India.
- Started his career as a soldier in the Mysore Army.
- Soon rose to prominence in the army owing to his military skills.
- He was made the Dalavayi (commander-in-chief), and later the Chief Minister of the Mysore state under Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, ruler of Mysore.
- Through his administrative prowess and military skills, he became the de-facto ruler of Mysore with the real king reduced to a titular head only.
- He set up a modern army and trained them along European lines.
- Hyder Ali built a strong army and annexed many regions in the South including Bidnur, Canara, Sera, Malabar and Sunda
- He also took French support in training his army
- This alarmed the British
- The British, along with the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad declared war on Mysore
- Hyder Ali was able to bring the Marathas and the Nizam to his side with skilful diplomacy
- He paid the Marathas to turn them neutral
- War continued for a year-and-a-half without any conclusion
- Haidar changed his strategy and suddenly appeared before the gates of Madras
- Following complete chaos and panic at Madras, English was forced to conclude a very humiliating treaty with Haidar on April 4, 1769—Treaty of Madras which brought an end to the war
- The conquered territories were restored to each other
- It was also agreed that they would help each other in case of a foreign attack
- The Marathas attacked Mysore in 1771. But the British refused to honour the Treaty of Madras and did not give support to Hyder Ali
- As a result, Hyder Ali’s territories were taken by the Marathas. He had to buy peace with the Marathas for a sum of Rs.36 lakh and another annual tribute
- This angered Hyder Ali who started hating the British
- When the English attacked Mahe, a French possession under Hyder Ali’s dominion, he declared war on the English in 1780
- Hyder Ali forged an alliance with the Nizam and the Marathas and defeated the British forces in Arcot
- Hyder Ali died in 1782 and the war was continued by his son Tipu Sultan
- Sir Eyre Coote, who had earlier defeated Hyder Ali many times, ended the war inconclusively with the Treaty of Mangalore
- As per the Treaty of Mangalore (11 March 1784), both parties agreed to return the captured territories and prisoners to each other
- Battle of Pollilur – It was fought on 27th August 1781 as part of second Anglo-Mysore war.
- Battle of Porto Novo – It was fought on 1st July 1781.
- The British started improving their relationship with the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas.
- Tipu Sultan, who assumed control of Mysore after Hyder Ali’s death, had French help in bettering his military resources.
- He also refused to free the English prisoners taken during the second Anglo-Mysore war as per the Treaty of Mangalore.
- Tipu declared war on Travancore in 1789. Travancore was a friendly state of the British.
- In 1790, the Governor-General of Bengal, Lord Cornwallis declared war on Tipu.
- Tipu was defeated in the first phase of the war and his forces had to retreat.
- Later the English advanced towards Tipu’s capital of Seringapatam and Tipu had to bargain for peace.
- The war ended with the Treaty of Seringapatam in 1792.
- As per the treaty, Tipu had to cede half of his kingdom to the English including the areas of Malabar, Dindigul, Coorg and Baramahal.
- He also had to pay Rs.3 Crore as war indemnity to the British.
- Tipu also had to surrender two of his sons as surety to the British till he paid his due.
- The Treaty of Seringapatam failed to bring peace between Tipu and the English.
- Tipu also refused to accept the Subsidiary Alliance of Lord Wellesley.
- Tipu aligned with the French which the British saw as a threat.
- Mysore was attacked from all four sides.
- The Marathas and the Nizam invaded from the North.
- Tipu’s troops were outnumbered 4:1.
- The British secured a decisive victory at the Battle of Seringapatam in 1799.
- Tipu died while defending the city.
- Tipu’s territories were divided between the British and the Nizam of Hyderabad.
- The core area around Seringapatam and Mysore was restored to the Wodeyar dynasty who had been ruling Mysore before Hyder Ali became the de-facto ruler.
- Mysore entered into a Subsidiary Alliance with the British and a British resident was placed at the Mysore Court.
- The Kingdom of Mysore remained a princely state not directly under the British until 1947 when it chose to join the Indian Union.
- Warren Hastings (1732 – 1818) became the first Governor of the Presidency of Fort William (Bengal) in 1772 and the first Governor-General of Bengal in 1774 till he resigned in 1785.
- He started his career as a writer (clerk) in the East India Company at Calcutta in 1750.
- In 1758, he became the British resident at Murshidabad, the capital of Bengal, after Mir Jafar was installed as the Nawab after the Battle of Plassey.
- During his term, the First Anglo-Maratha war and the second Anglo-Mysore war were fought.
- The Regulating Act of 1773 was passed during his term.
- He supported Sir William Jones in the formation of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1785.[/su_box]
- Hastings abolished the Dual System that had been established by Robert Clive. In the Dual System, the company had Diwani rights (rights to collect revenue) and the Nizam or Indian chiefs had the administrative authority.
- The Nawab’s annual allowance of Rs.32 lakh was reduced to Rs.16 lakh.
- The annual tribute paid to the Mughal Emperor was also stopped.
- For revenue collection, a Board of Revenue was set up at Calcutta.
- Treasury was moved from Murshidabad to Calcutta. Calcutta became Bengal’s capital in 1772.
- British collectors were appointed for each district and an Accountant General was also appointed.
- Unreasonable fines were done away with and restrictions were placed on the raising of rent.
- The judicial powers of the Zamindars were abolished.
- Civil and criminal courts were established. Two appellate courts were established at Calcutta, one for civil (Sadar Diwani Adalat) and one for criminal (Sadar Nizamat Adalat) cases.
- The criminal court was to have an Indian judge.
- Muslims were to be tried according to their law in the Koran and Hindus, according to Hindu laws. A code of Hindu Law, prepared by Hindu Pandits was translated into English.
- He also came down heavily on the dacoits in Bengal.
- Hastings abolished the system of dastaks which were misused by company officials and traders earlier.
- He enforced a uniform tariff of 2.5% for Indian and foreign goods.
- Private trade by company officials was restricted.
- The settlement was made between the British Officials and the Zamindars
- Zamindars were made the owners of the land and were given the right to collect the rents from the peasants
- The rent or the total amount collect by the Zamindar was divided into 11 parts where 10/11 of the share belonged to the East India Company and only 1/11 share was to be kept by the Zamindar.
- Zamindari System under the Mughals did not make Zamindars the owner of the land.
- Also, unlike the Zamindari System under the Permanent Settlement system; lands were not taken away from the peasants unless and until they are paying the rents.
- In the Zamindari System of Mughal Rule, hereditary was a legal rule.
- The first movement spearheaded by Mahatma Gandhi in India was related to peasants, which was the Champaran Satyagraha (1917) against forced indigo cultivation.
- Kheda Satyagaraha(1918) against high taxation following a plague epidemic and crop failure.
- Issues regarding peasants were raised during the Bardoli Satyagraha in 1928. Sardar Vallabbhai Patel took up the issue of a 30% rise in taxes just after a major flood and resulting crop failure.
- Apart from Gandhian movements, we also find various peasant organizations, who were independently fighting for the rights of peasants of the middle and lower level. One such movement was the ‘Awadh Kisan Sabha’ led by Madari Pasi in the erstwhile United Provinces(present-day Uttar Pradesh).
- Also, the issues related to agriculture and peasants were included in the list of Fundamental Rights and Economic Programme by the Indian National Congress in its Karachi session of 1931.
- A reiteration of the demands made at the Karachi session of INC(1935) was made during the Faizpur Agrarian Programme in 1936,
- A resolution for the abolition of Zamindari system was passed by the Kisan Conference held in Allahabad in 1935 presided by Sardar Patel, Bihar Kisan Sabha by Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, and Andhra Riyad Association by NG Ranga.
- Before the British advent in Bengal, there were a class of Zamindars in Bengal, Bihar and Odisha who collected revenue from land on behalf of the Mughal Emperor or his representative, the Diwan.
- After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the East India Company was granted the Diwani of Bengal. But then the Company found itself not able to collect revenue from the innumerable number of farmers in rural areas. They also did not have a good understanding of local laws and customs.
- The severe Bengal famine of 1770 occurred partly due to this neglect by the Company.
- Then, Warren Hastings tried to bring in some reforms like the five-yearly inspections. Here, the revenue-collection was awarded through an auction to the person promising the highest revenue. Due to the dangerous implications and effects of such a system, Hastings also experimented with the annual settlement of land. But this too did not improve conditions.
- Then, Lord Cornwallis under directions from the then British PM, William Pitt, proposed the Permanent Settlement system in 1786. This came into effect in 1793, by the Permanent Settlement Act of 1793.
- Landlords or Zamindars were recognised as the owners of the land. They were given hereditary rights of succession of the lands under them.
- The Zamindars could sell or transfer the land as they wished.
- The Zamindars’ proprietorship would stay as long as he paid the fixed revenue at the said date to the government. If they failed to pay, their rights would cease to exist and the land would be auctioned off.
- The amount to be paid by the landlords was fixed. It was agreed that this would not increase in future (permanent).
- The fixed amount was 10/11th portion of the revenue for the government and 1/10th was for the Zamindar. This tax rate was way higher than the prevailing rates in England.
- The Zamindar also had to give the tenant a patta which described the area of the land given to him and the rent he had to pay the landlord.
- The responsibility of taking care of farmers fell upon the shoulders of the Indian landlords. Being sons of the soil, they could reach the far corners of the region and also understand local customs very well.
- Because of the permanent nature of the system, there was a sense of security for everyone. The company knew the amount it would get in revenue. The landlord also was assured of the amount. Finally, the farmers also, in lieu of the patta were certain of their holdings and knew how much rent was to be paid.
- Since the settlement was of a permanent nature, the Zamindars would have an interest in the improvement in the land thereby improving the revenue.
- The basic demerit of this system was that the efficiency depended upon the nature of the Zamindars. If they were good, the interests of the farmers and the land were looked after very well. They would make improvements in the land which would be beneficial to everyone concerned. But if the landlords were bad, they were negligent of the plight of the farmers and the conditions of the land.
- This created a class of hereditary landlords forming the upper aristocracy in society who generally led luxurious and extravagant lifestyles.
- The Zamindars were generally favourable to the British administration and supported the British even during the freedom struggle. There were exceptions.
- The land assessment was not done properly and land revenue was fixed arbitrarily. This meant that both productive and unproductive land was expected to furnish revenue at the same rates. This created a burden on the farmers of unproductive land. Also, in the case of productive land, it was a loss of revenue to the government.
- The revenue rates were so high that many Zamindars became defaulters. In time, this system proved to have disastrous effects. In 1811, the British government warned against the imposition of permanent settlement without a proper land survey.
- The Board of Control took care of civil and military affairs. It comprised of 6 people:
- Secretary of State (Board President)
- Chancellor of the Exchequer
- Four Privy Councillors
- In this dual system of control, the company was represented by the Court of Directors and the British government by the Board of Control.
- The act mandated that all civil and military officers disclose their property in India and Britain within two months of their joining.
- The Governor-General’s council’s strength was reduced to three members. One of the three would be the Commander-in-Chief of the British Crown’s army in India.
- The Governor-General was given the right of veto.
- The Presidencies of Madras and Bombay became subordinate to the Bengal Presidency. In effect, Calcutta became the capital of the British possessions in India.
- This act made a distinction between the commercial and political activities of the East India Company.
- For the first time, the term ‘British possessions in India’ was used.
- This act gave the British government direct control over Indian administration.
- The Company became subordinate to the British government unlike as in the previous Regulating Act of 1773, where the government only sought to ‘regulate’ matters and not take over.
- This act established the British Crown’s authority in the civil and military administration of its Indian territories. Commercial activities were still a monopoly of the Company.
- The Governor-General had to serve two masters i.e. East India Company and the British Crown
- There were no clear boundaries between the responsibilities of the Board of Control and the Court of Directors of the company. The Governor-General had to take on the spot decisions exercising his discretion.
- According to this doctrine, any princely state under the direct or indirect (as a vassal) control of the East India Company, should the ruler not produce a legal male heir, would be annexed by the company.
- This was not introduced by Lord Dalhousie even though it was he who documented it and used it widely to acquire territories for the British.
- As per this, any adopted son of the Indian ruler could not be proclaimed as heir to the kingdom. The adopted son would only inherit his foster father’s personal property and estates.
- The adopted son would also not be entitled to any pension that his father had been receiving or to any of his father’s titles.
- This challenged the Indian ruler’s long-held authority to appoint an heir of their choice.
- In 1824, before the time of Dalhousie, the princely state of Kittur was acquired by the East India Company by this doctrine.
- It was as per this policy that Nana Sahib, the adopted son of the Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao II was denied his titles and pension.
- The final moment straw came when Awadh was annexed to the English East India Company under the terms of the Doctrine of Lapse on the grounds of internal misrule on 7 February 1856 AD. This annexation was one of the reasons for the Revolt of 1857.
- Many Indian states lost their sovereignty and became British territories.
- This led to a lot of unrest among the Indian princes.
- A lot of people were unhappy with the ‘illegal’ nature of this doctrine and this was one of the causes of the Indian Revolt of 1857.
- Nana Sahib and the Rani of Jhansi had grievances against the British because the former’s pension was stopped by the British after his foster father died, and the Rani’s adopted son was denied the throne under the doctrine of lapse.
- Dalhousie returned to Britain in 1856. After the Indian Revolt broke out in 1857, his governance was widely criticised as one of the causes of the rebellion.
- The subsidiary alliance in India was planned by Lord Wellesley but this term was introduced by French Governor Dupleix
- An Indian ruler entering into Subsidiary Alliance with the British had to dissolve his own armed forces and accept British forces in his territory.
- He also had to pay for the British army’s maintenance. If he failed to make the payment, a portion of his territory would be taken away and ceded to the British.
- In return, the British would protect the Indian state against any foreign attack or internal revolt.
- The British promised non-interference in internal affairs of the Indian state but this was rarely kept.
- The Indian state could not enter into any alliance with any other foreign power.
- He could also not employ any other foreign nationals other than Englishmen in his service. And, if he were employing any, on the signing of the alliance, he had to terminate them from his service. The idea was to curb the influence of the French.
- The Indian state could also not enter into any political connection with another Indian state without British approval.
- The Indian ruler, thus, lost all powers in respect of foreign affairs and the military.
- He virtually lost all his independence and became a British ‘protectorate’.
- A British Resident was also stationed in the Indian Court.
- As a result of Indian rulers disbanding their armies, many people were rendered unemployed.
- Many Indian states lost their independence and slowly, most parts of India were coming under British control.
- The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to accept the Subsidiary Alliance in 1798.
- Lord Clive also introduced the subsidiary system in Oudh and the Treaty of Allahabad was signed where the British promised the Oudh territory from enemies like Marathas.
- Hyderabad (1798)
- Mysore (1799 – After Tipu Sultan was defeated in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War)
- Tanjore (1799)
- Awadh (1801)
- Peshwa (Marathas) (1802)
- Scindia (Marathas) (1803)
- Gaekwad (Marathas) (1803)
- This system of land revenue was instituted in the late 18th century by Sir Thomas Munro, Governor of Madras in 1820.
- This was practised in the Madras and Bombay areas, as well as Assam and Coorg provinces.
- In this system, the peasants or cultivators were regarded as the owners of the land. They had ownership rights, could sell, mortgage or gift the land.
- The taxes were directly collected by the government from the peasants.
- The rates were 50% in dryland and 60% in the wetland.
- The rates were high and unlike the Permanent System, they were open to being increased.
- If they failed to pay the taxes, they were evicted by the government.
- Ryot means peasant cultivators.
- Here there were no middlemen as in the Zamindari system. But, since high taxes had to be paid only in cash (no option of paying in kind as before the British) the problem of moneylenders came into the show. They further burdened the peasants with heavy interests.
- The government of Lord William Bentinck, Governor-General of India (1828 to 1835) introduced the Mahalwari system of land revenue in 1833.
- This system was introduced in North-West Frontier, Agra, Central Province, Gangetic Valley, Punjab, etc.
- This had elements of both the Zamindari and the Ryotwari systems.
- This system divided the land into Mahals. Sometimes, a Mahal was constituted by one or more villages.
- The tax was assessed on the Mahal.
- Each individual farmer gave his share.
- Here also, ownership rights were with the peasants.
- Revenue was collected by the village headman or village leaders.
- It introduced the concept of average rents for different soil classes.
- The state share of the revenue was 66% of the rental value. The settlement was agreed upon for 30 years.
- This system was called the Modified Zamindari system because the village headman virtually became a Zamindar.
- Land became a commodity.
- Earlier there was no private ownership of land. Even kings and cultivators did not consider land as his ‘private property’.
- Due to the very high taxes, farmers resorted to growing cash crops instead of food crops. This led to food insecurity and even famines.
- Taxes on agricultural produce were moderate during pre-British times. The British made it very high.
- Insistence on cash payment of revenue led to more indebtedness among farmers. Moneylenders became landowners in due course.
- Bonded labour arose because loans were given to farmers/labourers who could not pay it back.
- When India achieved freedom from colonial rule, 7% of the villagers (Zamindars/landowners) owned 75% of the agricultural land.
- After the Battles of Plassey and Buxar, the British East India Company had acquired the Diwani rights over Bengal.
- The Nawab was only a nominal head with the real power resting under the company’s head.
- The company was only interested in maximising revenue and profits for itself while the plight of the local farmers and others were completely neglected.
- Prior to the company’s rule, the tax rate on land revenue was only about 1/10th of the agricultural produce. But the company increased it overnight to 50% of the produce.
- The farmers, who had previously-stored excess produce for a lean season (they had excess because of the less tax), were not permitted to store produce, and they could not store too, because of the terrible tax regime under the English.
- The British forced farmers to harvest cash crops like poppy and indigo for export rather than food crops like paddy. This resulted in a shortage of grains for the people.
- There was a minor shortage of crops in 1768 which was not an alarming situation.
- But in 1769, there was a monsoon failure followed by severe drought. Starvation deaths started by 1769, but the company officials ignored this situation.
- By 1770, the death count was increasing and almost 10 million people fell victim to this man-made devastation.
- The company continued to collect taxes from farmers who could pay by further increasing the tax rate to make up for the loss in agricultural revenue due to the famine.
- This famine was caused, to a large extent, by the company’s tax and revenue policies, and apathy of the company officials to rising starvation.
- The famine situation soothed by 1770 with good rainfall but not before claiming 1/3rd of the local population.
- Large swathes of land were depopulated as a result of the famine.
- Many agricultural lands became jungles for decades as a result of this famine.
- This also increased the menace of bands of thugee or dacoits in Bengal.
- Globally, the profit of the East India Company increased from fifteen million rupees in 1765 to thirty million in 1777.
- Despite the soar in profits, the company continued to suffer financially and influenced Parliament to pass the Tea Act in 1773.
- The Act allowed direct shipment of tea to the American colonies, without the payment of taxes. This infuriated the local merchants to the extent that they began protesting against this measure. One such protest was the Boston Tea Party of 1773.
- The aftermath of the protest would eventually lead to a series of events that would culminate into the 1776 American Revolution.
- The East India Company was in severe financial crisis and had asked a loan of 1 million pounds from the British government in 1772.
- Allegations of corruption and nepotism were rampant against company officials.
- There was a terrible famine in Bengal where a huge population perished.
- The Dual form of administration instituted by Robert Clive was complex and drawing a lot of complaints. According to this system, the company had Diwani rights (obtained after the Battle of Buxar) in Bengal and the Nawab had Nizamat rights (judicial and policing rights) as secured from the Mughal Emperor. In reality, both powers were vested with the company. The farmers and the general population suffered as their improvement was neglected and the company was only concerned with maximising revenue.
- Lawlessness increased in Bengal.
- The defeat of the company against Mysore’s Hyder Ali in 1769.
- This act permitted the company to retain its territorial possessions in India but sought to regulate the activities and functioning of the company. It did not take over power completely, hence called ‘regulating’.
- The act provided for the appointment of a Governor-General along with four Councillors in the Presidency of Fort William (Calcutta), jointly called the Governor-General in Council.
- As per this, Warren Hastings was appointed as the Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William.
- The Governors in Councils at Madras and Bombay were brought under the control of Bengal, especially in matters of foreign policy. Now, they could not wage war against Indian states without Bengal’s approval.
- The company directors were elected for a period of five years and one-fourth of them were to retire every year. Also, they could not be re-elected.
- The company directors were directed to make public all correspondence on revenue, civil and military matters with Indian authorities before the British authorities.
- A Supreme Court of Judicature was established at Calcutta with Sir Elijah Impey as the first Chief Justice. Judges were to come from England. It had civil and criminal jurisdiction over the British subjects and not Indian natives.
- The Governor-General had no veto power.
- It did not address the concerns of the Indian population who were paying revenue to the company.
- It did not stop corruption among the company officials.
- The Supreme Court’s powers were not well-defined.
- The parliamentary control that was sought in the activities of the company proved to be ineffective as there was no mechanism to study the reports sent by the Governor-General in Council.
- Born in Radhanagar, Hooghly District, Bengal Presidency in May 1772 into a Bengali Hindu family.
- He is known as the ‘Father of Modern India’ or ‘Father of the Bengal Renaissance’.
- He was a religious and social reformer.
- Widely known for his role in the abolition of the practice of Sati.
- He was a scholar and knew Sanskrit, Persian, Hindi, Bengali, English and Arabic.
- He fought against the perceived ills of Hindu society at that time.
- Propagated Western education among Indians.
- Formed the Brahmo Samaj in 1828.
- Worked for the East India Company as a clerk.
- He died in September 1833 in Bristol, England.
- He was opposed to Sati, polygamy, child marriage, idolatry, the caste system, and propagated widow remarriage.
- He stressed on rationalism and modern scientific approach.
- He believed in social equality of all human beings.
- He started many schools to educate Indians in Western scientific education in English.
- He was against the perceived polytheism of Hinduism. He advocated monotheism as given in the scriptures.
- He studied Christianity and Islam as well.
- He translated the Vedas and five of the Upanishads into Bengali.
- He started the Sambad Kaumudi, a Bengali weekly newspaper which regularly denounced Sati as barbaric and against the tenets of Hinduism.
- In 1828, he founded the Brahmo Sabha which was later renamed Brahmo Samaj. He had also founded the Atmiya Sabha.
- Brahmo Samaj’s chief aim was the worship of the eternal god. It was against priesthood, rituals and sacrifices. It focused on prayers, meditation and reading of the scriptures.
- It was the first intellectual reform movement in modern India where social evils then practised were condemned and efforts made to remove them from society.
- It led to the emergence of rationalism and enlightenment in India which indirectly contributed to the nationalist movement.
- The Brahmo Samaj believed in the unity of all religions.
- He worked for the improvement in the position of women. He advocated widow remarriage and education of women.
- His efforts led to the abolition of Sati in 1829 by Lord William Bentinck, the then Governor-General of India.
- He was a true humanist and democrat.
- He also spoke against the unjust policies of the British government especially the restrictions on press freedom.
- Raja Ram Mohan Roy and his Brahmo Samaj played a vital role in awakening Indian society to the pressing issues plaguing society at that time and also was the forerunner of all social, religious and political movements that happened in the country since.
- He visited England as an ambassador of the Mughal king Akbar Shah II (father of Bahadur Shah) where he died of a disease. He was awarded the title ‘Raja’ by Akbar II.
- Reformist
- Revivalist
- Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was born to Thakurdas Bandyopadhyay and Bhagavati Devi.
- As a child, he was a brilliant student and had a keen thirst for knowledge.
- He studied at the Sanskrit College at Calcutta and also cleared the law examination.
- He joined the Fort William College in 1841 as the Department Head for Sanskrit at the young age of 21. He was an erudite scholar of Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali and English.
- Apart from being a teacher, he was also a translator, writer, philosopher, entrepreneur and philanthropist.
- He wrote ‘Borno Porichoy’ which is even today used to teach the Bengali alphabet to beginners of the language. He revolutionised the manner in which the Bengali letters were written and taught.
- As a teacher, he urged his students to learn both Indian and western philosophy and imbibe the best of both. He also opened the gates of the Sanskrit College to non-Brahmin students.
- He was the first person in Bengal to introduce the concepts of admission fee and tuition fee.
- He set up a teachers’ training school so that there would be uniformity in teaching standards and methods. He was also an advocate of women’s education.
- He received the title ‘Vidyasagar’ from the Sanskrit College due to his brilliant performance in the college from where he graduated. Vidyasagar literally means ‘ocean of knowledge’.
- Apart from his work in modernising education in Bengal, he also championed the cause of women. He fought against the orthodox system of imposing severe restrictions on widows. Widows were required to shave their heads and wear white all the time. They were also not allowed to move outside their homes and had to lead a life of hard domestic labour and semi-starvation. Vidyasagar felt outraged at this injustice and advocated widow remarriage, which was also not permitted at that time.
- Sometimes, teenage and pre-teen girls were married off to old men and consequently were widowed at a very young age. Polygamy was also practised. Vidyasagar used ancient Hindu scriptures to prove that widow remarriage was sanctioned and also that polygamy was not endorsed by the scriptures. He pressed the British authorities to pass the Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act in 1856. It was passed during the East India Company rule.
- Vidyasagar was almost seen as a heretic by orthodox elements of society but he continued to espouse his views and opinions through several magazines and publications.
- He was married at the age of 14 (as was the custom then) to Dinamani Devi. The couple had a son Narayan Chandra. Vidyasagar arranged the marriage of his son to a widow.
- He authored many books such as Betaal Panchabinsati, Borno Porichoy, Bangala-r Itihaas, Upakramanika and so on. He also started the Bengali newspaper, Shome Prakash.
- He passed away in July 1891 owing to ill-health at the age of 70.
- Rabindranath Tagore remarked of Vidyasagar on his death, “One wonders how God, in the process of producing forty million Bengalis, produced a man!”
- The subsidiary alliance in India was planned by Lord Wellesley but this term was introduced by French Governor Dupleix
- An Indian ruler entering into Subsidiary Alliance with the British had to dissolve his own armed forces and accept British forces in his territory.
- He also had to pay for the British army’s maintenance. If he failed to make the payment, a portion of his territory would be taken away and ceded to the British.
- In return, the British would protect the Indian state against any foreign attack or internal revolt.
- The British promised non-interference in internal affairs of the Indian state but this was rarely kept.
- The Indian state could not enter into any alliance with any other foreign power.
- He could also not employ any other foreign nationals other than Englishmen in his service. And, if he were employing any, on the signing of the alliance, he had to terminate them from his service. The idea was to curb the influence of the French.
- The Indian state could also not enter into any political connection with another Indian state without British approval.
- The Indian ruler, thus, lost all powers in respect of foreign affairs and the military.
- He virtually lost all his independence and became a British ‘protectorate’.
- A British Resident was also stationed in the Indian Court.
- As a result of Indian rulers disbanding their armies, many people were rendered unemployed.
- Many Indian states lost their independence and slowly, most parts of India were coming under British control.
- The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to accept the Subsidiary Alliance in 1798.
- Lord Clive also introduced the subsidiary system in Oudh and the Treaty of Allahabad was signed where the British promised the Oudh territory from enemies like Marathas.
- Hyderabad (1798)
- Mysore (1799 – After Tipu Sultan was defeated in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War)
- Tanjore (1799)
- Awadh (1801)
- Peshwa (Marathas) (1802)
- Scindia (Marathas) (1803)
- Gaekwad (Marathas) (1803)
- This Act continued the company’s rule over the British territories in India.
- It continued the company’s trade monopoly in India for another 20 years.
- The Act established that “acquisition of sovereignty by the subjects of the Crown is on behalf of the Crown and not in its own right,” which clearly stated that the company’s political functions were on behalf of the British government.
- The company’s dividends were allowed to be raised to 10%.
- The Governor-General was given more powers. He could override his council’s decision under certain circumstances.
- He was also given authority over the governors of Madras and Bombay.
- When the Governor-General was present in Madras or Bombay, he would supersede in authority over the governors of Madras and Bombay.
- In the Governor-General’s absence from Bengal, he could appoint a Vice President from among the civilian members of his Council.
- The composition of the Board of Control changed. It was to have a President and two junior members, who were not necessarily members of the Privy Council.
- The salaries of the staff and the Board of Control were also now charged to the company.
- After all expenses, the company had to pay the British government Rs.5 Lakhs from the Indian revenue annually.
- Senior company officials were barred from leaving India without permission. If they did so, it would be considered as a resignation.
- The company was granted the authority to grant licenses to individuals and company employees to carry on trade in India. This was known as ‘privilege’ or ‘country trade’. This led to shipments of opium to China.
- This Act separated the revenue administration and the judiciary functions of the company leading to the disappearance of Maal Adalats (revenue courts).
- Due to Napoleon Bonaparte’s Continental System in Europe (which prohibited the import of British goods into French allies in Europe), British traders and merchants suffered.
- So they demanded they be given a share in the British trade in Asia and dissolve the monopoly of the East India Company.
- The company objected to this.
- Finally, British merchants were allowed to trade in India under a strict licensing system under the Charter Act of 1813.
- But in trade with China and the tea trade, the company still retained its monopoly.
- This Act asserted the Crown’s sovereignty over British possessions in India.
- The company’s rule was extended to another 20 years. Their trade monopoly was ended except for the trade in tea, opium, and with China.
- It empowered the local governments to tax people subject to the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
- The company’s dividend was fixed at 10.5%.
- The Act gave more powers for the courts in India over European British subjects.
- Another important feature of this act was to grant permission to the missionaries to come to India and engage in religious proselytization. The missionaries were successful in getting the appointment of a Bishop for British India with his headquarters at Calcutta in the provisions of the Act.
- The act provided for a financial grant towards the revival of Indian literature and the promotion of science.
- The company was also to take up a greater role in the education of the Indians under them. It was to set aside Rs.1 Lakh for this purpose.
- The British Government (East India Company)
- Christian missionaries
- Indian intellectuals and reformers
- The company wanted some educated Indians who could assist them in the administration of the land.
- Also, they wanted to understand the local customs and laws well.
- For this purpose, Warren Hastings established the Calcutta Madrassa in 1781 for the teaching of Muslim law.
- In 1791, a Sanskrit College was started in Varanasi by Jonathan Duncan for the study of Hindu philosophy and laws.
- The missionaries supported the spread of Western education in India primarily for their proselytising activities. They established many schools with education only being a means to an end which was Christianising and ‘civilising’ the natives.
- The Baptist missionary William Carey had come to India in 1793 and by 1800 there was a Baptist Mission in Serampore, Bengal, and also a number of primary schools there and in nearby areas.
- The Indian reformers believed that to keep up with times, a modern educational system was needed to spread rational thinking and scientific principles.
- The Charter Act of 1813 was the first step towards education being made an objective of the government.
- The act sanctioned a sum of Rs.1 lakh towards the education of Indians in British ruled India. This act also gave an impetus to the missionaries who were given official permission to come to India.
- But there was a split in the government over what kind of education was to be offered to the Indians.
- The orientalists preferred Indians to be given traditional Indian education. Some others, however, wanted Indians to be educated in the western style of education and be taught western subjects.
- There was also another difficulty regarding the language of instruction. Some wanted the use of Indian languages (called vernaculars) while others preferred English.
- Due to these issues, the sum of money allotted was not given until 1823 when the General Committee of Public Instruction decided to impart oriental education.
- In 1835, it was decided that western sciences and literature would be imparted to Indians through the medium of English by Lord William Bentinck’s government.
- Bentinck had appointed Thomas Babington Macaulay as the Chairman of the General Committee of Public Instruction.
- Macaulay was an ardent anglicist who had absolute contempt for Indian learning of any kind. He was supported by Reverend Alexander Duff, JR Colvin, etc.
- On the side of the orientalists were James Prinsep, Henry Thomas Colebrooke, etc.
- Macaulay minutes refer to his proposal of education for the Indians.
- According to him:
- English education should be imparted in place of traditional Indian learning because the oriental culture was ‘defective’ and ‘unholy’.
- He believed in education a few upper and middle-class students.
- In the course of time, education would trickle down to the masses. This was called the infiltration theory.
- He wished to create a class of Indians who were Indian in colour and blood but English in taste and affiliation.
- In 1835, the Elphinstone College (Bombay) and the Calcutta Medical College were established.
- Sir Charles Wood was the President of the Board of Control of the company in 1854 when he sent a despatch to the then Governor-General of India, Lord Dalhousie.
- This is called the ‘Magna Carta of English education in India.’
- Recommendations of the Wood’s Despatch:
- Regularise education system from the primary to the university levels.
- Indians were to be educated in English and their native language.
- The education system was to be set up in every province.
- Every district should have at least one government school.
- Affiliated private schools could be granted aids.
- Education of women should be emphasised.
- Universities of Madras, Calcutta and Bombay were set up by 1857.
- University of Punjab – 1882; University of Allahabad – 1887
- This despatch asked the government to take up the responsibility of education of the people.
- Although there were a few Englishmen who wanted to spread education for its own sake, the government was chiefly concerned only with its own concerns.
- There was a huge demand for clerks and other administrative roles in the company’s functioning.
- It was cheaper to get Indians rather than Englishmen from England for these jobs. This was the prime motive.
- No doubt it spread western education among Indians, but the rate of literacy was abysmally low during British rule.
- The state of women education was pathetic. This was because the government did not want to displease the orthodox nature of Indians and also because women could not generally be employed as clerks.
- In 1911, the illiteracy rate in British India was 94%. In 1921, it was 92%.
- Scientific and technical education was ignored by the British government.
- The company’s commercial activities were closed down. It was made into an administrative body for British Indian possessions.
- The company’s trade links with China were also closed down.
- This act permitted the English to settle freely in India.
- This act legalised the British colonisation of the country.
- The company still possessed the Indian territories but it was held ‘in trust for his majesty’.
- The Governor-General of Bengal was re-designated as the Governor-General of India. This made Lord William Bentinck the first Governor-General of India.
- Thus, the country’s administration was unified under one control.
- The Governors of Bombay and Madras lost their legislative powers.
- The Governor-General had legislative powers over entire British India.
- The Governor-General in council had the authority to amend, repeal or alter any law pertaining to all people and places in British Indian territories whether British, foreign or Indian native.
- The civil and military affairs of the company were controlled by the Governor-General in council.
- The Governor-General’s council was to have four members. The fourth member had limited powers only.
- For the first time, the Governor-General’s government was called Government of India and the council was called India Council.
- The act mandated that any law made in India was to be put before the British Parliament and was to be called ‘Act’.
- As per the act, an Indian Law Commission was established.
- The first Law Commission had Lord Macaulay as its chairman.
- It sought to codify all Indian law.
- The act provided for the Presidency of Bengal to be divided into the Presidencies of Agra and Fort William.
- But this never came into effect.
- This was the first act that gave permission for Indians to have a share in the country’s administration.
- It stated that merit should be the basis of employment to government service and not birth, colour, religion or race.
- The act provided for the mitigation of slavery existing in India at that time.
- The British Parliament abolished slavery in Britain and all its possessions in 1833.
- Since the number of British residents in the country was increasing, the act allowed for having three Bishops in India.
- It also sought to regulate the establishment of Christian institutions in India.
- It was the first step in the centralisation of India’s administration.
- The ending of the East India Company’s commercial activities and making it into the British Crown’s trustee in administering India.
- Codification of laws under Macaulay.
- Provision for Indians in government service.
- Born in 1780 to the leader of the Sukerchakia misl of the Sikh confederacies in Pakistani Punjab.
- United 12 Sikh misls and subjugated other local kingdoms to become the ‘Maharaja of Punjab’ in 1801.
- Successfully resisted many Afghan invasions and also captured areas under them like Lahore, Peshawar and Multan.
- Earned the title ‘Sher-i-Punjab’ (Lion of Punjab).
- After occupying Lahore in 1799, it became his capital.
- His Sikh Empire included lands to the north of the Sutlej River and South of the north-western Himalayas. His Empire included major towns like Lahore, Multan, Srinagar (Kashmir), Attock, Peshawar, Rawalpindi, Jammu, Sialkot, Amritsar and Kangra.
- He maintained friendly relations with the British.
- He had men from different races and religions in his army.
- His maintained an army very efficient in warfare, logistics and infrastructure.
- After his death in 1839, there was a struggle for succession among his many relatives. This marked the process of disintegration of the Empire.
- He was succeeded by his eldest legitimate son Kharak Singh.
- Major Broad was placed in Amritsar as the East India Company’s agent in 1843.
- The British were closely watching the developments in the Punjab political front and had territorial ambitions there as in other parts of the subcontinent.
- The Sikh forces crossed the Sutlej in December 1845 and took offensive positions against the English forces.
- Subsequently, battles were fought in different places and the English victory at Sobraon led to the signing of the Lahore Treaty in 1846 which ended the war.
- Maharaja Duleep Singh, who was the ruler of Punjab was to remain its ruler with his mother Jindan Kaur as regent.
- The Sikhs had to cede the Jalandhar Doab to the British.
- The Sikhs were also asked to pay a very huge war indemnity to the English. But since they could not pay all of it, part of it was paid and to make up for the remaining, Kashmir, Hazarah and all territories between the Beas and the Indus Rivers were given to the English.
- The Sikhs were to limit their army to a certain number.
- Also, a British Resident, Sir Henry Lawrence was appointed to the Sikh court.
- The humiliation caused by the first Anglo-Sikh war wherein the Sikh Empire had lost some territories to the British East India Company.
- The Sikh regent, Maharani Jindan Kaur was not treated properly by the British.
- She was removed from Lahore on conspiracy charges against the British resident in Lahore.
- Multan was a part of the Sikh Empire when Maharaja Ranjit Singh had captured it in 1818.
- Multan was governed by Dewan Mulraj. He resented the Lahore Court’s (capital of the Sikh Empire but controlled by the British resident since the first Anglo-Sikh war) demand for increased tax assessment and revenues.
- The British Resident at that time was Sir Frederick Currie. He undermined Mulraj and imposed another governor Sardar Kahan Singh along with a British agent Patrick Vans Agnew.
- In 1848, Vans Agnew and another officer who arrived in Multan to take charge were murdered by Mulraj’s troops.
- This news led to unrest in Punjab and many Sikh soldiers joined the rebel forces against the British.
- Battles were fought in Ramnagar and Chilianwala.
- The battle at Ramnagar was indecisive whereas the Sikhs won at Chilianwala.
- The final battle was fought at Gujrat near Chenab (not the present Indian state Gujarat) in 1849. This was won by the British forces.
- The Afghan forces under Dost Mohammad Khan had joined the Sikhs’ side.
- Punjab was annexed by the British in March 1849 (under Lord Dalhousie) as per the Treaty of Lahore.
- The eleven-year-old Maharaja, Duleep Singh was pensioned off to England.
- Jind Kaur was separated from her son the Maharaja and taken to Firozpur. Her allowance was reduced to a meagre amount and her jewels and money confiscated.
- Sir John Lawrence was appointed as the first Chief Commissioner of Punjab to take care of the administration.
- Dalhousie was recognised for his role in the annexation of Punjab to the British and was made a Marquis.
- The famous Koh-i-Noor diamond went into British hands. It was in possession of Maharaja Ranjit Singh who had willed it to the Puri Jagannath Temple of Odisha but his will was not executed by the British. They say it was acquired as part of the Treaty of Lahore after the second Anglo-Sikh war.
- The English disregard to the religious sensitivities of the Hindu and Muslim Indian sepoys.
- Sir John Craddock, the Commander-in-Chief of the Madras Army had issued orders prohibiting soldiers from wearing religious marks on their foreheads and also to trim their moustaches and shave off their beards. This offended both Hindu and Muslim soldiers.
- They were also asked to wear new round hats instead of the traditional headgear that they were used to. This led to suspicion among the sepoys that they were being converted to Christianity.
- Craddock was acting against warning from the military board not to bring about changes in the military uniform without taking into consideration all required precautions of Indian sensibilities.
- A few sepoys who had protested against these new orders were taken to Fort St. George and punished severely. They were given heavy flogging.
- Also present in the Vellore Fort were the wife and children of Tipu Sultan (who was killed in the Battle of Seringapatam in 1799) who were housed in a palace within the fort. Tipu Sultan’s sons also instigated the rebellion.
- On 10th July 1806, the sepoys who had gathered killed 14 British officers and 115 Englishmen of the 69th Regiment.
- The mutiny started during midnight and by dawn, the fort had been captured by them.
- They raised the flag of the Mysore Sultanate over the fort. They also declared Tipu Sultan’s son Fateh Hyder as the king.
- But a British officer who had escaped the fort alerted the British force present at Arcot.
- From Arcot, British troops arrived led by Sir Rollo Gillespie. He was able to quell the rebellion.
- About 100 Indian soldiers were brought out of the palace where they had sought refuge. They were then ordered to stand against a wall and shot dead.
- In all, 350 Indian soldiers were killed and 350 wounded.
- All three Madras regiments involved in the Vellore Mutiny were disbanded.
- After a trial, sepoys involved in the mutiny were punished by death (blown away from canons, hanging and firing squads) and by penal transportation.
- John Craddock and other senior British officers responsible for the new dress regulations were recalled to Britain.
- The new dress regulations were abolished.
- Flogging for Indian soldiers was abolished.
- Tipu Sultan’s family were moved to Calcutta.
- It is believed that the brutal and swift suppressing of the Vellore Mutiny is partly responsible for the Southern sepoys not taking part in the Indian Revolt of 1857.
- Born in Bithoor (Kanpur District), Uttar Pradesh in May 1824.
- His birth name was Nana Govind Dhondu Pant.
- His father travelled from the Western Ghats to the court of the Peshwa Baji Rao II in Pune to become a court official.
- He and his brother were adopted by the Peshwa who was childless in 1827. Nana Saheb’s mother was the Peshwa’s sister-in-law.
- His childhood friends were Tatya Tope and Manikarnika Tambe (later Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi).
- Peshwa Baji Rao II had been living in an estate in Bithoor after the Third Anglo-Maratha War. He was given an annual pension by the British.
- As per the Doctrine of Lapse established by Lord Dalhousie, any Indian State under the control of the British or any vassal of the British without its ruler having an heir would be annexed by the British.
- After the Peshwa died, the British stopped giving pension to his adopted son Nana Saheb and refused to accept him as the heir (since he was adopted).
- Despite being stated as the heir in the will of Baji Rao II, the British refused to accept Nana Saheb’s rightful claim to be the next Peshwa.
- This ‘insult’ from the British led him to take part in the Revolt of 1857.
- In June 1857, Nana Saheb and the sepoys he led attacked the British entrenchment at Kanpur and captured it.
- In July 1857, the British were successful in recapturing Kanpur by defeating Nana Saheb’s forces.
- From Kanpur, Nana Saheb escaped to Bithoor.
- The British took possession of his palace in Bithoor but could not get hold of Nana himself.
- In 1858, Nana’s associates Rani Laxmibai and Tatya Tope proclaimed him as the Peshwa at Gwalior.
- By 1859, he was believed to have escaped to Nepal. It is not known how, when or where he died.
- According to this doctrine, any princely state under the direct or indirect (as a vassal) control of the East India Company, should the ruler not produce a legal male heir, would be annexed by the company.
- This was not introduced by Lord Dalhousie even though it was he who documented it and used it widely to acquire territories for the British.
- As per this, any adopted son of the Indian ruler could not be proclaimed as heir to the kingdom. The adopted son would only inherit his foster father’s personal property and estates.
- The adopted son would also not be entitled to any pension that his father had been receiving or to any of his father’s titles.
- This challenged the Indian ruler’s long-held authority to appoint an heir of their choice.
- In 1824, before the time of Dalhousie, the princely state of Kittur was acquired by the East India Company by this doctrine.
- It was as per this policy that Nana Sahib, the adopted son of the Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao II was denied his titles and pension.
- The final moment straw came when Awadh was annexed to the English East India Company under the terms of the Doctrine of Lapse on the grounds of internal misrule on 7 February 1856 AD. This annexation was one of the reasons for the Revolt of 1857.
- Many Indian states lost their sovereignty and became British territories.
- This led to a lot of unrest among the Indian princes.
- A lot of people were unhappy with the ‘illegal’ nature of this doctrine and this was one of the causes of the Indian Revolt of 1857.
- Nana Sahib and the Rani of Jhansi had grievances against the British because the former’s pension was stopped by the British after his foster father died, and the Rani’s adopted son was denied the throne under the doctrine of lapse.
- Dalhousie returned to Britain in 1856. After the Indian Revolt broke out in 1857, his governance was widely criticised as one of the causes of the rebellion.
- At the age of 14, she was married to the Maharaja of Jhansi, Gangadhar Rao in 1842.
- After her marriage, she was called Laxmibai.
- Her son Damodar Rao was born in 1851. But he died after four months.
- Gangadhar Rao died in 1853. Before he died, he had adopted his cousin’s son Anand Rao, who was renamed, Damodar Rao.
- Lord Dalhousie sought to annex Jhansi when the Maharaja died applying the Doctrine of a lapse since the king did not have any natural heir.
- As per this, the Rani was granted an annual pension and asked to leave the fort of Jhansi.
- The Revolt of 1857 had broken out in Meerut and the Rani was ruling over Jhansi as regent for her minor son.
- British forces under the command of Sir Hugh Rose arrived at Jhansi fort with the intention of capturing it in 1858. He demanded that the city surrender to him or else it would be destroyed.
- Rani Laxmibai refused and proclaimed, “We fight for independence. In the words of Lord Krishna, we will if we are victorious, enjoy the fruits of victory, if defeated and killed on the field of battle, we shall surely earn eternal glory and salvation.”
- For two weeks the battle went on where the Rani led her army of men and women valiantly against the British. Despite courageous fighting, Jhansi lost the battle.
- The Rani, tying her infant son on her back, escaped to Kalpi on horseback.
- Along with Tatya Tope and other rebel soldiers, the Rani captured the fort of Gwalior.
- Afterwards, she proceeded to Morar, Gwalior to fight the British.
- Rani Laxmibai died while fighting in Gwalior on 18th June 1858, aged 29. She was dressed as a soldier when she died.
- Sir Hugh Rose has commented, “Remarkable for her beauty, cleverness and perseverance, she had been the most dangerous of all the rebel leaders. The best and bravest of all.”
- Rani Laxmibai became a symbol of resistance against British rule for later nationalists in India.
- She will always be remembered as a great martyr who laid down her life for the cause of freedom. She is a symbol of courage, heroism and woman power.
- He was born in 1725 in England.
- He Arrived in Fort St. George (Madras) in 1744 to work for the East India Company as a ‘factor’ or company agent.
- He enlisted in the company army where he was able to prove his ability.
- He earned great fame and praise for his role in the Siege of Arcot which saw a British victory against the larger forces of Chanda Sahib, the Nawab of the Carnatic and French East India Company’s forces.
- He is also known as “Clive of India”.
- Clive’s initial stay in India lasted from 1744 to 1753.
- He was called back to India in 1755 to ensure British supremacy in the subcontinent against the French.
- He became the deputy governor of Fort St. David at Cuddalore.
- In 1757, Clive along with Admiral Watson was able to recapture Calcutta from the Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah.
- In the Battle of Plassey, the Nawab was defeated by the British despite having a larger force.
- Clive delivered a decisive English victory by inducing the Nawab’s army Commander Mir Jaffar, who was installed as Bengal’s Nawab after the battle.
- Clive was also able to capture some French forts in Bengal.
- For these exploits, Robert Clive was made Lord Clive, Baron of Plassey.
- As a result of this battle, the British became the paramount power in the Indian subcontinent.
- Bengal became theirs and this greatly increased the company’s fortunes. (Bengal was richer than Britain at that time).
- This also opened up other parts of India to the British and finally led to the rise of the British Raj in India. For this reason, Robert Clive is also known as “Conqueror of India”.
- Robert Clive was the Governor of Bengal from 1757-60 and from 1765-67.
- During his first tenure as Bengal’s governor, under the Nawab Mir Jaffar, corruption was rampant.
- The company’s sole aim was maximising revenue at the expense of the peasants.
- He amassed a great personal fortune in India and returned to Britain in 1760.
- He returned to India in 1765 as Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Bengal.
- At this time, there was widespread corruption in the company.
- So Clive forbade the company’s employees from engaging in private trade. He also barred them from accepting gifts.
- He started a ‘Society of Trade’ in 1765 but it was later abolished.
- Mir Jaffar’s son-in-law Mir Qasim had ascended the throne of Bengal.
- He wanted to wrest himself from English influence.
- The Battle of Buxar was fought between the British and the combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja Ud Daulah (the Nawab of Awadh) and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. The British won this battle.
- As a result of this battle, the Diwani (right to collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha was granted to the British by the Mughal Emperor in return for an annual sum of money and Allahabad and Kora districts.
- Robert Clive, who could have had Awadh as well, refrained from annexing it. He intended to use it as a ‘buffer’ state between the British and the Marathas.
- The Nizamat (territorial jurisdiction) of Bengal remained with the Nawab. In reality, the English held this power.
- This was Clive’s Dual System where the company was the Diwan and the Nawab held the Nizamat.
- He has been denounced by many in India for the atrocities he heaped upon its peasantry by imposing high taxes and forcing them to cultivate only cash-crops, leading to famines.
- Robert Clive faced censure in England upon his return due to the mass amount of personal fortune he accumulated during his stay in India.
- Fought between: English and French forces.
- People involved: Joseph François Dupleix (French Governor-General), Major Stringer Lawrence (British), Anwaruddin Khan (Nawab of the Carnatic).
- When: 1746 – 1748
- Where: Carnatic region, Southern India
- Result: Inconclusive.
- France and Britain were on opposite sides of the camp at the War of Austrian Succession that had broken out in Europe in 1740.
- This Anglo-French rivalry led to their trading companies in India vying with each other for supremacy.
- The French Governor of Pondicherry Dupleix had raised an army of Indian sepoys under French officers in India.
- The French East India Company was nationalized in 1720 and France had imperialistic designs on India.
- In 1745, there was a naval attack on a French fleet by Britain in which even Pondicherry in danger.
- Dupleix, along with additional French troops from Mauritius defended against this attack and captured Madras, which had been controlled by the English.
- The English made another attack on Pondicherry but instead faced a heavy loss. The English sought help from the Nawab of Carnatic (Arcot) Anwaruddin Khan.
- The Nawab asked the French to return Madras to the British.
- Dupleix tried convincing the Nawab unsuccessfully that Madras would be handed over to him at a later stage.
- Then, the Nawab sent a huge army to fight the French forces. This army was defeated by the relatively small number of French forces in Mylapore (in modern-day Chennai) in 1746.
- This exposed the weakness of the armies of the Indian rulers vis-à-vis the efficiently trained armies of the European powers.
- The war ended in 1748 with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle also called Treaty of Aachen.
- Madras was given back to the English in exchange for Louisburg in North America to France.
- Dupleix understood the superiority of the European armies who used this advantage to influence Indian princes and establish French hegemony in South India.
- Fought between: Different claimants to the posts of the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Nawab of the Carnatic; each claimant being supported either by the British or the French.
- People involved: Muhammad Ali and Chanda Sahib (for the Nawabship of the Carnatic or Arcot); Muzaffar Jung and Nasir Jung (for the post of the Nizam of Hyderabad).
- When: 1749 – 1754
- Where: Carnatic (Southern India)
- Result: Muzaffar Jung became Hyderabad’s Nizam. Muhammad Ali became the Nawab of the Carnatic.
- The first Carnatic War demonstrated the power of the well-trained European army vis-à-vis the less than efficient armies of the Indian princes.
- The French Governor-General Dupleix wanted to take advantage of this and assert influence and authority over the Indian kingdoms, so as to make way for a French Empire in India. So, he was looking to interfere in the internal power struggles among Indian chiefs.
- Even though England and France were officially at peace with each other as there was no fighting in Europe, the political climate in Southern Indian at that time led their companies to fight in the subcontinent.
- The Nizam of Hyderabad, Asaf Jah I died in 1748 starting a power struggle between his grandson (through his daughter) Muzaffar Jung, and his son Nasir Jung.
- Anwaruddin Khan, the Nawab of the Carnatic supported Nasir Jung’s claim to the throne of the Nizam.
- This led Muzaffar Jung to instigate war with French support against Anwaruddin, called the Battle of Ambur.
- Anwaruddin Khan had died in the Battle of Ambur in 1749.
- Now there was a tussle for the Nawabship of Carnatic between Muhammad Ali (son of Anwaruddin) and Chanda Sahib (son-in-law of Dost Ali Khan, a former Nawab of the Carnatic).
- This led to a tripartite understanding among the various powers. This is explained in the table below:
- After Anwaruddin Khan’s death, his son Muhammad Ali fled to Trichy. Then, Chanda Sahib was proclaimed the Nawab of the Carnatic.
- Then, French forces marched on to the Deccan and fought and killed Nasir Jung.
- Subsequently, Muzaffar Jung was installed as the Nizam of Hyderabad.
- However, Muzaffar Jung was killed a couple of months later and the French installed Salabat Jung (another son of Asaf Jah I) as the Nizam.
- In return, the French acquired from the Nizam four rich districts on the Coromandel Coast (Northern Sircars).
- At this time, Trichy was under the control of Chanda Sahib and the French. But the Trichy Fort was held by Muhammad Ali.
- To undermine the growing French power in the region, the English decided to support Muhammad Ali.
- Robert Clive (later Governor of Bengal) attacked Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, as a divisionary tactic. This is called the Siege of Arcot, in which the British won.
- After this many battles were fought and Chanda Sahib was killed in one of them.
- Thus, Muhammad Ali was installed as the Nawab of the Carnatic.
- The war ended with the Treaty of Pondicherry in 1754.
- Although the French gained the Northern Sircars, Dupleix was criticised by the French authorities because of heavy losses to the French company.
- Dupleix was called back to France. He was replaced by Charles-Robert Godeheu who signed the Treaty of Pondicherry.
- As per the treaty, the English and the French were to indulge only in commercial activities in India and not interfere in sub-continental political affairs.
- Fought between: The French and the British
- People involved: Count de Lally (French General), British Lieutenant-General Sir Eyre Coote
- When: 1757 – 1763
- Where: Carnatic, South India
- Result: British victory
- In 1756, the Seven Year’s War broke out in Europe and once again England and France were pitted against one another. No major engagements would take place between the two in the Indian Subcontinent until 1757.
- After the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the British forces wrested Chandannagar (in Bengal) from the French.
- The French, under Count de Lally, captured Fort St. George and attacked the English to acquire Madras.
- But he was defeated by English forces under Sir Eyre Coote in the Battle of Wandiwash in 1760.
- The French lost their Indian possessions including Pondicherry, Mahe, Gingee and Karaikal to the British.
- The war ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1763.
- As per the Treaty, Chandannagar and Pondicherry were returned to France but they were barred from fortifying them or having troops in them. They could only have trading activities.
- French hopes of building an empire in India were completely dashed.
- This established Britain as the paramount European power in India. The path was clear for the establishment of a British colonial rule in India.
- The superior naval strength of the British. They could bring in soldiers from Europe and also provide supplies from Bengal. The French did not have any such avenue to replenish resources.
- The French Army had a strength 300 European Cavalry, 2,250 European infantry, 1,300 sepoys (soldiers), 3,000 Mahrattas and 16 pieces of artillery while the English deployed about 80 European Horses, 250 Native horses, 1,900 European Infantry, 2,100 sepoys.
- Britain had Madras, Bombay and Calcutta – three important posts. In contrast, the French had only one strong post, Pondicherry. This meant that if Pondicherry was captured, the French had little hope of recovery. But Britain could rely on any of the other two bases if one was captured.
- The victory at the Battle of Plassey opened up the British to a rich area, namely Bengal.
- The British had many capable and able soldiers like Robert Clive, Stringer Lawrence and Sir Eyre Coote.
- Religious & Social Causes – racism or racial discrimination was believed to be a major reason for the revolt of 1857 wherein Indians were exploited and were kept away from mixing with Europeans. The whites also started interfering in the religious and cultural affairs of Indians and tortured them as well.
- Political Causes – The British expansion had led to the propagation of unjust policies that led to the loss of power of the Nawabs and Zamindars residing at various places of India. The introduction of unfair policies like the policy of Trade and Commerce, the policy of indirect subordination (subsidiary alliance), the policy of war and annexation, the policy of direct subordination (doctrine of lapse), the policy of misgovernance (through which Awadh was annexed) greatly hampered the interests of the rulers of the native states, and they one by one became victims of British expansionism. Therefore, those rulers, who lost their states to the British, were naturally against the British and took sides against them during the revolt.
- Economic Factors -There were various reforms in the taxation and revenue system that affected the peasants’ heavily. British Government had imposed and introduced various administrative policies to expand their territory.
- Permanent Settlement in Bengal
- Mahalwari settlement in Central India & Ryotwari settlement in southern India
- The sepoys lacked one clear leader; there were several. They also did not have a coherent plan by which the foreigners would be routed.
- Indian rulers who aided the revolt did not envision any plan for the country after the British were defeated.
- Majorly northern India was affected by this revolt. The three presidencies of Bengal, Bombay and Madras remained mostly unaffected. The Sikh soldiers also did not take part in the rebellion.
- Hindu Personal Law, 1772
- Regulating Act of 1773
- Pitt’s India Act of 1784
- Charter Act of 1793
- Charter Act of 1813
- Charter Act of 1833
- Charter Act of 1853
- Bengal Regulation Act, 1818
- Bengal Sati Regulation Act, 1829
- Thugee and Dacoit Suppressions Acts, 1836
- Indian Slavery Act, 1843
- Caste Disabilities Removal Act, 1850
- Hindu Widow’s Remarriage Act, 1856
- Government of India Act, 1858
- Societies Registration Act, 1860
- Indian Penal Code, 1860
- Frontiers Crime Regulation Act, 1860
- Female Infanticide Prevention Act, 1870
- Criminal Tribes Act, 1871
- Christian Personal Law, 1872
- Indian Contract Act, 1872
- East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act, 1873
- Dramatic Performances Act, 1876
- Murderous Outrage Regulation, 1877
- Indian Treasure Trove Act, 1878
- Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
- Transfer of Property Act, 1882
- Ilbert Bill, 1883
- Indian Telegraph Act, 1885
- Age of Consent Act, 1891
- Indian Councils Act, 1892
- Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900
- Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904
- Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act, 1907
- Indian Councils Act, 1909 / Morley-Minto Reforms
- Indian Press Act, 1910
- Government of India Act, 1912
- Ingress into India ordinance, 1914
- Government of India Act, 1915
- Defence of India Act, 1915
- Rowlatt Act, 1919
- Government of India Act, 1919
- Official Secrets Act, 1923
- Bengal Criminal Law Amendment, 1924
- Indian Forest Act, 1927
- Hindu Inheritance (Removal of Disabilities) Act, 1928
- Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929
- Indian Sale of Goods Act, 1930
- Jain Law, 1930
- Indian Partnership Act, 1932
- Government of India Act, 1935.
- The Foreigners Act 1946
- Industrial Disputes Act, 1947
- Sindh Land Alienation Bill, 1947
- Indian Independence Act, 1947
- Western education
- Vernacular languages
- End of the old social order
- Socio-religious reform movements
- Economic policies of the British
- Political unity
- Communications network
- Growth of the modern press
- Lord Lytton’s policies
- Legacy of the Revolt of 1857
- Ilbert Bill controversy
- National movements outside the country
- Formed in 1885 by Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant.
- Other founding members include Dadabhai Naoroji (Born on September 4, 1825) and Dinshaw Wacha.
- The first session was held in Bombay under the presidency of Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee in 1885.
- The first session was attended by 72 delegates from across the country.
- Viceroy of India at the time was Lord Dufferin who gave his permission to Hume for the first session.
- The Congress was formed with the intention of discussing problems faced by the people of the country irrespective of caste, creed, religion or language.
- It was basically a movement of the upper and middle class, western-educated Indians in its moderate phase.
- The second session of the Congress was held in Calcutta in 1886 followed by the third in Madras in 1887.
- The moderate phase of the Congress (or the national movement) was dominated by the ‘moderates’.
- They were people who believed in British justice and were loyal to them.
- Known as the ‘Grand old man of India.’
- He became the first Indian to become a member of the House of Commons in Britain.
- Authored ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India’ which focused on the economic drain of India because of British policies. This led to an enquiry on the matter.
- The first president of the INC.
- Lawyer by profession. First Indian to act as Standing Counsel.
- Founded ‘The Hindu’ newspaper where he criticised British imperialism.
- Also founded Tamil newspaper ‘Swadesamitran’.
- Co-founded the Madras Mahajana Sabha.
- Regarded as Mahatma Gandhi’s political guru.
- Founded the Servants of India Society.
- Also called ‘Rashtraguru’ and ‘Indian Burke’.
- Founded the Indian National Association which later merged with the INC.
- Cleared the Indian Civil Service but was discharged due to racial discrimination.
- Founded newspaper ‘The Bengalee’.
- Education of the masses and organising public opinion, make people aware of their rights.
- Indian representation in the Executive Council and in the Indian Council in London.
- Reform of the legislative councils.
- Separation of the executive from the judiciary.
- Decreased land revenue tax and ending peasant oppression.
- After 1892, raised the slogan, “No taxation without representation.”
- Reduced spending on the army.
- Abolishing salt tax and duty on sugar.
- Holding the ICS exam in India along with England to allow more Indians the opportunity to take part in the administration.
- Freedom of speech and expression.
- Freedom to form associations.
- Development of modern capitalist industries in India.
- End of economic drain of India by the British.
- Repealing the Arms Act of 1878.
- Increasing spending on education of Indians.
- They believed in peaceful and constitutional methods to demand and fulfil those demands.
- Used petitions, meetings, resolutions, pamphlets, memoranda and delegations to voice their demands.
- Their method has been called 3P – Prayers, Petition and Protest.
- Had complete faith in the British justice system.
- Confined to the educated classes only. Did not try to employ the masses.
- They aimed only at getting political rights and self-government under British dominion.
- Indian Councils Act of 1892 was the first achievement of the INC.
- This Act increased the size of the legislative councils and also increased the proportion of non-officials in them.
- They were able to sow the seeds of nationalism in the people.
- They popularised ideals like democracy, liberty and equality.
- They exposed many draining economic policies of the British.
- Leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale (Born on May 9 1866) and M G Ranade were social reformers too and opposed child marriage and imposed widowhood.
- This phase of the national movement excluded the masses and only the educated elites participated in it.
- They did not demand complete independence from foreign rule.
- They did not understand the power of a mass movement of people, unlike Gandhi who used this power.
- Drew most of their ideas from western political thinking which further alienated them from the people.
- Governor-General’s office
- The Law member (fourth member) became a full member with the right to vote.
- The Legislative Council which had six members now had 12 members.
- The 12 members were: 1 Governor-General, 1 Commander-in-Chief, 4 members of the Governor-General’s Council, 1 Chief Justice of the Supreme Court at Calcutta, 1 regular judge of the Supreme Court at Calcutta, and 4 representative members drawn from among the company’s servants with at least 10 years tenure, appointed by the local governments of Bengal, Bombay, Madras and North Western Provinces.
- The Governor-General could nominate a vice president to the council.
- The Governor-General’s assent was required for all legislative proposals.
- The Court of Directors could create a new presidency or province. This was because of the difficulties that were faced in administering the increasingly large Indian territories of Britain.
- Since 1833 and 1853, two new provinces of Sind and Punjab were added.
- It could also appoint a Lieutenant Governor for these provinces. In 1859, a Lt. Governor was appointed for Punjab.
- This Act also led to the creation of Assam, Burma and the Central Provinces.
- The Act provided for the appointment of a separate governor for the Bengal Presidency. It maintained that the governor of Bengal should be different from the Governor-General who was to head administration of the whole of India.
- The number of Board of Directors was reduced from 24 to 18 out of which 6 people were to be nominated by the British Crown.
- Indian Civil Services
- Macaulay Committee of 1854 gave India her first civil services.
- This act removed the right of patronage to appointments in civil service held by the Court of Directors.
- The appointment was to be done only by open competition based on merit and was open to all.
- The report recommended that only the ‘fittest’ be selected to the ICS.
- For the first time, the legislative and executive functions of the Governor-General’s council were separated.
- This act served as the foundation of the modern parliamentary form of government. The legislative wing of the Governor-General’s Council acted as a parliament on the model of the British Parliament.
- It extended the company’s rule for an indefinite period, unlike the previous charter acts. Thus, it could be taken over by the British government at any time.
- Company’s influence was further reduced by this act. The Board of Directors now had 6 members who were Crown-nominated.
- It gave birth to the Indian civil services and was open to all including Indians. This ended the system of appointments by recommendation and started a system of open and fair competition.
- For the first time, local representation was introduced into the legislative council in the form of four members from the local governments of Bengal, Bombay, Madras and North Western Provinces.
- The Revolt of 1857 served as a jolt to the British government.
- There was widespread resentment against the company in Britain as the policies of the company were blamed for the revolt.
- Queen Victoria, who was the monarch of Britain, also became the sovereign of British territories in India, with the title “Empress of India” as a result of this Act.
- East India Company was liquidated.
- Indian territories of Britain were to be governed in the name of the British Queen.
- The Court of Directors and the Board of Control were scrapped.
- The powers of the Company’s Court of Directors were vested with the Secretary of State for India.
- This Secretary of State was to be a British MP and a member of the Prime Minister’s cabinet. He was to be assisted by a council of 15 members.
- He was also the channel of communication between the British government in Britain and the Indian administration. He also had the power to send secret despatches to India without consulting his council.
- Via the Secretary of State, the British parliament could ask questions regarding Indian affairs.
- The representative of the British government in India was the Governor-General and Viceroy (both the same person to avoid conflict).
- The Viceroy and the governors of the various presidencies were appointed by the Crown.
- The Viceroy was to be assisted with an Executive Council.
- This act made India a direct British colony.
- This act abolished the dual government of the Pitt’s India Act.
- This act also ended the doctrine of lapse.
- The Indian Civil Services was to be instituted for the administration of the country. There was provision for Indians also to be admitted to the service.
- It was decided that the remaining Indian princes and chiefs (more than 560 in number) would have their independent status provided they accept British suzerainty.
- First Secretary of State for India: Lord Stanley
- Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli was opposed to the crown directly ruling India, but his fellow MP’s did not agree with his views and the bill passed the House of Commons easily.
- First Governor-General and Viceroy of India: Lord Canning
- For the executive functions of the Council, a fifth member was added. Now there were five members for home, military, law, revenue and finance. (A sixth member for public works was added in 1874.)
- Lord Canning, who was the Governor-General and Viceroy at the time, introduced the portfolio system. In this system, each member was assigned a portfolio of a particular department.
- For legislative purposes, the Governor-General’s Council was enlarged. Now, there were to be between 6 and 12 additional members (nominated by the Governor-General).
- There were appointed for a period of 2 years. Out of these, at least half of the additional members were to be non-official (British or Indian).
- Their functions were confined to legislative measures.
- Lord Canning nominated three Indians to the Council in 1862 namely, the Raja of Benares, the Maharaja of Patiala and Sir Dinkar Rao.
- Any bill related to public revenue or debt, military, religion or foreign affairs could not be passed without the Governor-General’s assent.
- The Viceroy had the power to overrule the council if necessary.
- The Governor-General also had the power to promulgate ordinances without the council’s concurrence during emergencies.
- The Secretary of State for India in Britain could also dissolve any act passed by the Governor-General’s Council.
- This Act restored the legislative powers of the Governor-in-Councils of the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay (which was taken away by the Charter Act of 1833).
- The legislative council of Calcutta had extensive power to pass laws for the whole of British India.
- There was provision made for the formation of legislative councils in other provinces. New provinces could also be created for legislative purposes and Lieutenant Governors be appointed for them. Legislative councils were formed in other provinces in Bengal in 1862, North-West Frontier Province in 1886 and Punjab and Burma in 1897.
- The legislative council had limited role. It was chiefly advisory. No discussion on finance was permitted.
- Even though Indians were nominated, there was no statutory provision for the inclusion of Indians in it.
- It allowed for the decentralisation of administration with the vesting of legislative power to the presidencies of Bombay and Madras.
- The power of ordinance given to the governor-general gave him absolute powers.
- The Indian National Congress (INC) was formed in 1885. There was a growing feeling of nationalism and this led the INC to put forth some demands to the British authorities.
- One of their demands was the reform of the legislative councils.
- They also wanted the principle of the election instead of nomination.
- The INC also wanted the right to hold discussions on financial matters which was hitherto not allowed.
- The Viceroy at the time Lord Dufferin set up a committee to look into the matter. But the Secretary of State did not agree to the plan of direct elections. He, however, agreed to representation by way of indirect election.
- The act increased the number of additional or non-official members in the legislative councils as follows:
- Central Legislative Council: 10 – 16 members
- Bengal: 20 members
- Madras: 20 members
- Bombay: 8 members
- Oudh: 15 members
- North Western Province: 15
- In 1892, out of 24 members, only 5 were Indians.
- The members were given the right to ask questions on the budget (which was barred in the Indian Councils Act 1861) or matters of public interest but had to give notice of 6 days for it.
- They could not ask supplementary questions.
- The principle of representation was initiated through this act. The district boards, universities, municipalities, chambers of commerce and zamindars were authorised to recommend members to the provincial councils.
- The legislative councils were empowered to make new laws and repeal old laws with the permission of the Governor-General.
- It was the first step towards a representative form of government in modern India although there was nothing in it for the common man.
- The number of Indians was increased and this was a positive step.
- However, since the British conceded only a little, this act led indirectly to the rise of many revolutionary movements in India. Many leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak blamed Congress’s moderate policy of petitions and persuasions for a lack of positive developments and called for a more aggressive policy against British rule.
- Despite Queen Victoria’s proclamation that Indian’s would be treated equally, very few Indians got such an opportunity as the British authorities were hesitant to accept them as equal partners.
- Lord Curzon had carried out the partition of Bengal in 1905. This lead to a massive uprising in Bengal as a result. Following this, the British authorities understood the need for some reforms in the governance of Indians.
- The Indian National Congress (INC) was also agitating for more reforms and self-governance of Indians. The earlier Congress leaders were moderates, but now extremist leaders were on the rise who believed in more aggressive methods.
- INC demanded home rule for the first time in 1906.
- Gopal Krishna Gokhale met Morley in England to emphasise the need for reforms.
- Shimla Deputation: A group of elite Muslims led by Aga Khan met Lord Minto in 1906 and placed their demand for a separate electorate for the Muslims.
- John Morley was a member of the Liberal government, and he wanted to make positive changes in India’s governance.
- The legislative councils at the Centre and the provinces increased in size.
- Central Legislative Council – from 16 to 60 members
- Legislative Councils of Bengal, Madras, Bombay and United Provinces – 50 members each
- Legislative Councils of Punjab, Burma and Assam – 30 members each
- The legislative councils at the Centre and the provinces were to have four categories of members as follows:
- Ex officio members: Governor-General and members of the executive council.
- Nominated official members: Government officials who were nominated by the Governor-General.
- Nominated non-official members: nominated by the Governor-General but were not government officials.
- Elected members: elected by different categories of Indians.
- The elected members were elected indirectly. The local bodies elected an electoral college who would elect members of the provincial legislative councils. These members would, in turn, elect the members of the Central legislative council.
- The elected members were from the local bodies, the chambers of commerce, landlords, universities, traders’ communities and Muslims.
- In the provincial councils, non-official members were in the majority. However, since some of the non-official members were nominated, in total, a non-elected majority was there.
- Indians were given membership to the Imperial Legislative Council for the first time.
- It introduced separate electorates for the Muslims. Some constituencies were earmarked for Muslims and only Muslims could vote their representatives.
- The members could discuss the budget and move resolutions. They could also discuss matters of public interest.
- They could also ask supplementary questions.
- No discussions on foreign policy or on relations with the princely states were permitted.
- Lord Minto appointed (on much persuasion by Morley) Satyendra P Sinha as the first Indian member of the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
- Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian affairs.
- The Act introduced communal representation in Indian politics. This was intended to stem the growing tide of nationalism in the country by dividing the people into communal lines. The culmination of this step was seen in the partition of the country along religious lines. The effects of differential treatment of different religious groups can be seen to this day.
- The Act did nothing to grant colonial self-government, which was Congress’s demand.
- The Act did increase Indian participation in the legislative councils, especially at the provincial levels.
- Since 1765 (following the Battle of Buxar) the province of Bengal, which included present-day West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Bangladesh and Assam was under the British.
- It was a very large area and the population rose to almost 80 million by the first few years of the 20th century. Calcutta was the capital of the province and also of British India.
- There were difficulties in administering such a large area. The eastern part, especially in rural areas were neglected.
- That region was lacking in the fields of industry, education and employment. Much of the industry was centred on Calcutta.
- For administrative ease, the partition of the province had been proposed even before Curzon had arrived in India.
- In 1874, Assam was sliced away from Bengal and put under a Chief Commissioner.
- Initially, Lord Curzon proposed the partitioning of the province as an administrative measure solely. In 1904, he undertook a tour of eastern Bengal.
- The idea of using the Bengal partition as a political tool to undermine the growing nationalism in Bengal and other parts of India occurred later.
- As per Curzon, after the partition, the two provinces would be Bengal (including modern West Bengal, Odisha and Bihar) and Eastern Bengal and Assam.
- Bengal would also lose five Hindi-speaking states to the Central Provinces. It would gain Odia-speaking states from the Central Provinces.
- Eastern Bengal would consist of Hill Tripura, Chittagong, Rajshahi and Dhaka divisions. Its capital would be Dhaka.
- Bengal would have a Hindu majority and Eastern Bengal and Assam would have a Muslim majority population. Its capital would remain Calcutta.
- There was widespread political unrest in the province after Curzon announced the partition.
- Many people in Bengal regarded this partition as an insult to their motherland. There was a huge cry for the unity of Bengal. Rabindranath Tagore composed the famous song ‘Amar Sonar Bangla’ which later became the national anthem of Bangladesh.
- The Indian National Congress protested this move to separate the province on communal lines.
- Most of the Bengalis in the western part protested against this step which would also make them a linguistic minority in their own province. There would be more Odia and Hindi speaking people than Bengalis.
- Many Muslims from the Bengali Muslim community welcomed this move since they thought that it would advance their educational, economic and political interests if they became the majority in the new province.
- Lord Curzon also promised to start a university in Dhaka. This was also seen as an opportunity for Muslims to develop in education and improve their standard of living.
- The general protest in the rest of the country was against this partition. The people saw through the ‘divide and rule’ policy of the British authorities.
- The chief aim of such a partition was only to create a rift between the two communities and hampering the unity and nationalism in the country.
- The agitation had started much before the date of the partition itself. On the date of the partition, people observed a day of mourning. Tagore asked Hindus and Muslims to tie rakhis to each other as a mark of protest.
- A few Muslims also were against the partition.
- The Swadeshi and Boycott movements in the national struggle started as a result of this partition.
- People started boycotting British goods which had flooded the Indian market and had dealt a blow to the indigenous industry.
- The partition did succeed in creating a communal rift in the country and even contributed to the birth of the Muslim League in 1906.
- Owing to mass political protests, the partition was annulled in 1911.
- New provinces were created based on linguistic lines rather than religious lines. Bihar and Orissa Province was carved out of Bengal. (Bihar and Orissa became separate provinces in 1936).
- A separate Assam province was created.
- The capital of British India was moved to Delhi from Calcutta in 1911.
- Despite the annulment, the partition did create a communal divide among the Hindus and Muslims of Bengal.
- The failure of the moderate leaders in getting any significant results from the British authorities.
- The limitations of the moderates were the main causes of the rise of extremism.
- The partition of Bengal in 1905 opened the eyes of the Indians to the true colours of the British rulers.
- Lord Curzon and his disdain for anything Indian also created resentment and anger against the foreigners.
- There was a fear among some leaders that the moderates with their westernized notions were trying to create an India in the image of the West.
- There was a revival of national pride at that time.
- The extremist leaders were also influenced by the growth of spiritual nationalism at that time.
- The Delhi Durbar held in 1903 when people had not fully recovered from the horrific effects of the famine that killed lakhs of people drew widespread condemnation.
- Events happening around the world also inspired the extremist leaders. Abyssinia’s successful repulsion of the Italian army in 1896 and Japan’s defeat of Russia in 1905 shattered the notion of European invincibility.
- Other national movements like in Persia, Egypt and Turkey also motivated the Indian leaders.
- The differences between the moderates and the extremists became official in the Surat session of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1907.
- The meeting was to take place in Nagpur that year. The extremists wanted Lala Lajpat Rai or Bal Gangadhar Tilak to be the President. But the moderates wanted Rash Behari Ghosh as President. There was a rule that the session’s President could not be from the home province. Tilak’s home province was Bombay Presidency in which Surat was also situated. So, the moderates changed the venue to Surat so that Tilak could be excluded from the presidency.
- The moderates also wanted to drop the resolutions on swadeshi, boycott movements and national education.
- Rash Behari Ghosh became the president in the session which was held at Surat.
- Tilak was not even allowed to speak and this angered the extremists, who wanted to cancel the session.
- Both sides were firm on their demands and neither was willing to find a common path.
- The moderates then held a separate meeting in which they reiterated the Congress goal of self-government within the British Empire and to adopt only constitutional methods to achieve their goals.
- Unfortunately, the Surat session was marred by the use of sticks and chappals by the members on one another.
- The extremist goal was ‘swaraj’. This, at that time, either meant complete autonomy and freedom from British control, or a total Indian control over the administration but not necessarily a break away from Britain’s imperial reign.
- This was in contrast to the moderates’ demand of only an increase in the share of Indians in the administration and military upper echelons.
- The extremist leaders involved wider sections of people in the movement. They involved lower-middle-class people also.
- They did not stick to constitutional methods to protest and demand. They resorted to boycotts, strikes, etc. They also burned foreign-made goods.
- They believed in confrontation rather than persuasion.
- The Swadeshi movement gathered momentum in India because of the extremists’ support. This led to the establishment of Indian banks, mills, factories, etc.
- They were strongly against British imperialistic policies in India.
- They took pride in Indian culture and history. They looked at the ancient scriptures for inspiration and courage.
- They believed in sacrificing everything including life for the cause of the motherland.
- They opposed westernisation of Indian society by the British.
- Tilak famously said, “Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have it.”
- They were very vocal in their opposition to the British rule, unlike the moderates who had faith in British justice.
- They tried to instil self-respect and patriotism in the people by invoking past heroes like Ashoka, Shivaji, Maharana Pratap and Rani Laxmibai.
- They did not believe in loyalty to the British Crown.
- Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal (the first three called Lal-Bal-Pal leading the extremist cause in Punjab, Bombay and Bengal respectively.)
- Other leaders included Aurobindo Ghosh, Rajnarayan Bose, A K Dutt, V O C Pillai.
- The government attacked the extremist leaders vigorously.
- Laws were passed to check their activities and influence. The following laws were passed between 1907 and 1911: Seditious Meetings Act, 1907; Indian Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act, 1908; Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1908; and the Indian Press Act, 1910.
- Tilak was sentenced and served in prison in Mandalay (Burma) for writing in support of revolutionaries who were involved in the killing of two British women (their original target was a British magistrate).
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak organized Ganpati and Shivaji festival to spread the message of boycotting westernization in India. This was a major social reform and had a larger impact on society.
- The slogan “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it” by Tilak was the talk of society.
- British goods and national education was boycotted which brought a major change in the economy of the country and gave way to employment and various other opportunities for the Indians.
- There was a major reform in education across the country as the extremists worked on establishing National universities free from government control.
- Born as Keshav Gangadhar Tilak in 1856 in Ratnagiri, modern-day Maharashtra.
- Born into a middle-class Hindu family; got a bachelor’s degree from Pune.
- Initially worked as a Maths teacher. Later started working as a journalist and joined the freedom movement.
- He was one of the founders of the Fergusson College in Pune.
- He died in 1920 aged 64.
- Tilak joined the Congress in 1890.
- He was opposed to moderate ways and views and had a more radical and aggressive stance against British rule.
- He was one of the first advocates of Swaraj or self-rule. He gave the slogan, “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it.” He believed that no progress was possible without self-rule.
- He was part of the extremist faction of the INC and was a proponent of boycott and Swadeshi movements.
- He published two papers – Kesari in Marathi and Mahratta in English. He was fearless in his criticism of the government in these papers.
- He was sentenced to 18 months imprisonment on charges of “incitement to murder”. He had written that killers of oppressors could not be blamed, quoting the Bhagavad Gita. After this, two British officials were killed by two Indians in retaliation to the ‘tyrannical’ measures taken by the government during the bubonic plague episode in Bombay.
- Along with Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, he was called the ‘Lal-Bal-Pal’ trio of extremist leaders.
- He was tried for sedition several times. He spent 6 years in Mandalay prison from 1908 to 1914 for writing articles defending Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose. They were revolutionaries who had killed two English women, throwing bomb into the carriage carrying the women. Chaki and Bose had mistakenly assumed that Magistrate Douglas Kingsford was in it.
- Tilak re-joined the INC in 1916, after having split earlier.
- He was one of the founders of the All India Home Rule League, along with Annie Besant and G S Khaparde.
- For his political ideals, Tilak drew heavily from the ancient Hindu scriptures.
- He called for people to be proud of their heritage. He was against the blatant westernisation of society.
- He transformed the simple Ganesh Puja performed at home into a social and public Ganesh festival.
- He used the Ganesh Chaturthi and Shiv Jayanti (birth anniversary of Shivaji) festivals to create unity and a national spirit among the people. Unfortunately, this move alienated non-Hindus from him.
- The Sarvajanik Ganeshotsav as popularised by him since 1894 is still one of the biggest festivals of Maharashtra.
- Despite being a nationalist radical leader, Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s social views were conservative.
- He was against Hindu women getting modern education.
- He was opposed to the age of consent bill initially in which the age of marriage of girls was proposed to be raised from 10 to 12. Even though he was okay with this raising of age, he saw this act as interference in the social and religious life of Indians by the British.
- Gita Rahasya
- Arctic Home of the Vedas
- Tilak received A Law degree from Government’s Law College, Bombay (now Mumbai) in the year 1879.
- Tilak founded two newspapers ‘Kesari’ in Marathi and ‘Mahratta’ in English. Both the newspapers actively propagated the cause of national freedom and stressed on making the Indians aware to be self-reliant.
- Tilak strongly criticized the education system followed in India by the British, therefore, he started the Deccan Educational Society with Gopal Ganesh Agarkar and Vishnu Shastry Chiplunkar for the purpose of inspiring nationalist education among Indian students.
- Tilak started the Swadeshi movement in India and to promote it, Tilak with Jamshedji Tata established Bombay Swadeshi Stores.
- He also started two important festivals (now the prime festival in Maharashtra and adjacent states). Shivaji Jayanti in 1895 and Ganesha festival in 1893. Ganesha festival because Lord Ganesha was worshipped by all Hindus and Shivaji because he was the first Hindu ruler who fought against Muslim power in India and established the Maratha Empire in the 17th century.
- Tilak with Annie Besant, Joseph Baptista, and Muhammad Ali Jinnah founded the All India Home Rule League in 1916. In the same year, he concluded the Lucknow Pact with Jinnah, which provided for Hindu-Muslim unity in the nationalist struggle.
- His Publication includes The Arctic Home in the Vedas (1903) which represent the origin of Aryans and Srimad Bhagvat Gita Rahasya (1915)
- The Government of India released a coin to commemorate Tilak’s 150th birth anniversary in 2007. Not just that, Om Raut directed the film Lokmanya: Ek Yug Purush which was released on 2 January 2015.
- Born in 1865 in Moga district, Punjab to a middle-class family.
- Was a lawyer by profession.
- Also called ‘Punjab Kesari’.
- Was influenced by Swami Dayananda Saraswati and joined the Arya Samaj in Lahore.
- He believed that the ideals of Indian-culture combined with nationalism will lead to the establishment of a secular state.
- Along with Bipin Chandra Pal and Bal Gangadhar Tilak, he formed the Lal-Bal-Pal trio of extremist leaders.
- He was also involved with the Hindu Mahasabha.
- He fought against untouchability.
- He joined the Indian National Congress (INC) and participated in many political agitations in Punjab.
- For his political agitation, he was deported to Burma without trial in 1907 but returned after a few months because of lack of evidence.
- He was opposed to the partition of Bengal.
- He founded the Home Rule League of America in 1917 in New York. In the USA, he worked to get moral support for the Indian independence movement from the international community.
- He was also elected President of the All India Trade Union Congress.
- He supported the non-cooperation movement of Gandhi at the Nagpur session of the Congress in 1920.
- He protested against the Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre that followed.
- He was the editor of the Arya Gazette, which he had founded.
- He founded the Servants of People Society in 1921.
- He co-founded the Punjab National Bank in 1894.
- He was elected deputy leader of the Central Legislative Assembly in 1926.
- In 1928, he moved a resolution in the assembly refusing cooperation with the Simon Commission since the Commission had no Indian members.
- He was leading a silent protest against the Simon Commission in Lahore when he was brutally lathi-charged by Superintendent of Police, James Scott. Rai died of injuries sustained a few weeks later. Bhagat Singh and a few other revolutionaries vowed to take revenge for Rai’s death and plotted to kill Scott. But he shot and killed John Saunders, an Assistant Superintendent of Police in a case of mistaken identity.
- The first political assassination of a British officer in India post-1857 Revolt.
- Brothers Damodar, Balkrishna and Vasudeo Chapekar shot at WC Rand, ICS, Chairman of the Special Plague Committee in 1897.
- Rand’s military escort Lieutenant Ayerst died on the spot whereas Rand died a few days later due to wounds.
- The brothers were against the atrocities committed by the British authorities under Rand during the plague epidemic in Pune.
- The government in order to curb the spread of the epidemic ended up harassing Indians and employing extreme measures.
- All the three brothers were hanged for the assassination.
- Also called Muraripukur conspiracy or Manicktolla bomb conspiracy.
- Douglas Kingsford was an unpopular British Chief Magistrate who was the target of the bomb thrown at Muzaffarpur (Northern Bihar).
- Unfortunately, the carriage at which the bomb was targeted contained two English ladies and not Kingsford. The two women died in the attack.
- Revolutionaries who threw the bomb were Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose.
- Chaki committed suicide while Bose, then only 18 years of age, was caught and sentenced to death by hanging.
- The other people who were tried in the case were Aurobindo Ghosh and his brother Barin Ghosh, Kanailal Dutt, Satyendranath Bose and more than 30 others.
- They were all members of the Anushilan Samiti in Calcutta.
- Aurobindo Ghosh was acquitted due to lack of evidence and others served varying life-terms in prison.
- The India House was an organisation in London involved in the freedom struggle of India mainly engaging Indian students in the UK as its participants.
- Patrons of this organisation included Shyamji Krishna Varma and Bhikaiji Cama.
- India House became the centre of revolutionary activities for Indian independence outside India.
- The organisation was liquidated after the assassination of an army officer Curzon Wyllie by its member Madan Lal Dhingra in 1909.
- Also known as Howrah-Sibpur Conspiracy case.
- In this case, 47 revolutionaries associated with the Anushilan Samiti were arrested and tried for the murder of Inspector Shamsul Alam.
- Alam was investigating the revolutionary activities of the Samiti and was trying to link and consolidate the murders and robberies into a single case.
- The case brought to light the work of revolutionary Jatindranath Mukherjee.
- Despite attempts, the case could not establish the links, mainly due to the decentralised nature of the Samiti.
- Of all the accused, only Jatindranath Mukherjee and Narendranath Bhattacharjee were sentenced to one-year imprisonment.
- Also known as the Delhi Conspiracy Case.
- This was an assassination attempt on Lord Hardinge, the then Viceroy of India.
- The revolutionaries were led by Rashbehari Bose.
- A homemade bomb was thrown into the viceroy’s howdah (elephant-carriage) during a ceremonial procession in Delhi. The occasion was the transfer of the British capital from Calcutta to Delhi.
- Lord Hardinge was injured while an Indian attendant was killed.
- Bose escaped being caught whereas a few others were convicted for their roles in the conspiracy.
- This was a case of a train robbery that occurred near Kakori in Uttar Pradesh.
- The attack was led by the youth of the Hindustan Republican Association (later renamed Hindustan Socialist Republican Association) including Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Chandrashekhar Azad, Rajendra Lahiri, Thakur Roshan Singh and others.
- It was believed that the train carried money bags belonging to the British government.
- One person was killed during the robbery.
- The revolutionaries were arrested and tried in court.
- Bismil, Khan, Lahiri and Roshan Singh were sentenced to death. Others were sentenced to deportation or imprisonment.
- Also known as Chittagong Uprising.
- This was an attempt by revolutionaries to raid the police armoury and the auxiliary forces armoury from Chittagong (now in Bangladesh).
- They were led by Surya Sen. Others involved were Ganesh Ghosh, Lokenath Bal, Pritilata Waddedar, Kalpana Dutta, Ambika Chakraborty, Subodh Roy, etc.
- The raiders were not able to locate any arms but were able to cut telephone and telegraph wires.
- After the raid, Sen hoisted the Indian flag at the police armoury.
- Many of the revolutionaries involved escaped but some were caught and tried.
- The government came down heavily on the revolutionaries. Many were sentenced to imprisonment, deported to the Andaman, and Surya Sen was sentenced to death by hanging. Sen was brutally tortured by the police before he was hanged.
- Revolutionaries Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt sought to draw attention to their revolution by throwing a bomb along with leaflets in the Assembly House at Delhi.
- They did not attempt to escape and were arrested and jailed for the act.
- Their intention was not to hurt anyone but to popularise their revolutionary activities and philosophy.
- Bhagat Singh was re-arrested in connection with the murder of a British police officer, JP Saunders. This case was called the Lahore Conspiracy Case.
- Saunders was killed mistakenly as the real target was another police officer, James Scott, who was responsible for the lathi charge that killed Lala Lajpat Rai.
- Others involved in this killing were Sukhdev, Rajguru and Chandrashekhar Azad.
- They were all members of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA).
- While in prison, Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev along with other political prisoners went on a hunger strike to demand better conditions of prisoners in the jails.
- After the trial, all three were sentenced and executed by hanging in March 1931. Azad was martyred the same year in February in a gun battle with the police in a park in Allahabad.
- Dyarchy was introduced, i.e., there were two classes of administrators – Executive councillors and ministers.
- The Governor was the executive head of the province.
- The subjects were divided into two lists – reserved and transferred.
- The governor was in charge of the reserved list along with his executive councillors. The subjects under this list were law and order, irrigation, finance, land revenue, etc.
- The ministers were in charge of subjects under the transferred list. The subjects included were education, local government, health, excise, industry, public works, religious endowments, etc.
- The ministers were responsible to the people who elected them through the legislature.
- These ministers were nominated from among the elected members of the legislative council.
- The executive councillors were not responsible to the legislature, unlike the ministers.
- The Secretary of State and the Governor-General could interfere in matters under the reserved list but this interference was restricted for the transferred list.
- Legislature:
- The size of the provincial legislative assemblies was increased. Now about 70% of the members were elected.
- There were communal and class electorates.
- Some women could also vote.
- The governor’s assent was required to pass any bill. He also had veto power and could issue ordinances also.
- The chief executive authority was the Governor-General.
- There were two lists for administration – central and provincial.
- The provincial list was under the provinces while the centre took care of the central list.
- Out of the 6 members of the Viceroy’s executive council, 3 were to be Indian members.
- The governor-general could issue ordinances.
- He could also certify bills that were rejected by the central legislature.
- Legislature:
- A bicameral legislature was set up with two houses – Legislative Assembly (forerunner of the Lok Sabha) and the Council of State (forerunner of the Rajya Sabha).
- Legislative Assembly (Lower House)
- Members of the Legislative Assembly:
- The nominated members were nominated by the governor-general from Anglo-Indians and Indian Christians.
- The members had a tenure of 3 years.
- Council of State (Upper House)
- Only male members with a tenure of 5 years.
- Members of the Council of State:
- The legislators could ask questions and also vote a part of the budget.
- Only 25% of the budget was subject to vote.
- Rest was non-votable.
- A bill had to be passed in both houses before it became a law.
- There were three measures to resolve any deadlock between both the houses – joint committees, joint conferences and joint sittings.
- Governor-General
- The governor-general’s assent was required for any bill to become law even if both houses have passed it.
- He could also enact a bill without the legislature’s consent.
- He could prevent a bill from becoming law if he deems it as detrimental to the peace of the country.
- He could disallow any question, adjournment motion or debate in the house.
- The franchise was restricted and there was no universal adult suffrage.
- Voters should have paid land revenue of Rs.3000 or have a property with rental value or have taxable income.
- They should possess previous experience in the legislative council.
- They should be members of a university senate.
- They should hold certain offices in the local bodies.
- They should hold some specific titles.
- All this narrowed the number of people who could vote to an abysmal number.
- There were to be at least 8 and a maximum of 12 members in the council.
- Half of the members should have ten years of experience in public service in India.
- Their tenure was to be 5 years.
- Their salaries were increased from £1000 to £1200.
- There were to be 3 Indian members in the Council.
- This act provided for the first time, the establishment of a public service commission in India.
- The act also provided that after 10 years, a statutory commission would be set up to study the working of the government. This resulted in the Simon Commission of 1927.
- It also created an office of the High Commissioner for India in London.
- Dyarchy introduced the concept of responsible government.
- It introduced the concept of federal structure with a unitary bias.
- There was the increased participation of Indians in the administration. They held some portfolios like labour, health, etc.
- For the first time, elections were known to the people and it created political consciousness among the people.
- Some Indian women also had the right to vote for the first time.
- This act extended consolidated and communal representation.
- The franchise was very limited. It did not extend to the common man.
- The governor-general and the governors had a lot of power to undermine the legislatures at the centre and the provinces respectively.
- Allocation of the seats for the central legislature was not based on population but the ‘importance’ of the province in the eyes of the British.
- The Rowlatt Acts were passed in 1919 which severely restricted press and movement. Despite the unanimous opposition of Indian members of the legislative council, those bills were passed. Several Indian members resigned in protest.
- The first civil disobedience movement by Gandhi in the freedom struggle.
- Persuaded by Rajkumar Shukla, an indigo cultivator, Gandhi went to Champaran in Bihar to investigate the conditions of the farmers there.
- The farmers were suffering under heavy taxes and an exploitative system. They were forced to grow indigo by the British planters under the tinkathia system.
- Gandhi arrived in Champaran to investigate the matter but was not permitted by the British authorities to do so.
- He was asked to leave the place but he refused.
- He was able to gather support from the farmers and masses.
- When he appeared in court in response to a summons, almost 2000 locals accompanied him.
- The case against him was dropped and he was allowed to conduct the inquiry.
- After peaceful protests against the planters and landlords led by Gandhi, the government agreed to abolish the exploitative tinkathia system.
- The peasants also received a part of the money extracted from them as compensation.
- Champaran struggle is called the first experiment on Satyagraha by Gandhi and later Ahmedabad Mill Strike and Kheda Satyagraha occurred.
- It was during this time that Gandhi was given the names ‘Bapu’ and ‘Mahatma’ by the people.
- 1918 was a year of failed crops in the Kheda district of Gujarat due to droughts.
- As per law, the farmers were entitled to remission if the produce was less than a quarter of the normal output.
- But the government refused any remission from paying land revenue.
- Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, under Gandhi’s guidance, led the farmers in protest against the collection of taxes in the wake of the famine.
- People from all castes and ethnicities of the district lend their support to the movement.
- The protest was peaceful and people showed remarkable courage even in the face of adversities like confiscation of personal property and arrest.
- Finally, the authorities gave in and gave some concessions to the farmers.
- Gandhi used Satyagraha and hunger strike for the first time during an industrial dispute between the owners and workers of a cotton mill in Ahmedabad.
- The owners wanted to withdraw the plague bonus to the workers while the workers were demanding a hike of 35% in their wages.
- During the peaceful strike led by Gandhi, he underwent a hunger strike.
- The Ahmedabad Mill strike was successful and the workers were granted the wage hike they wanted.
- Officially known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919.
- Passed in March 1919 by the Imperial Legislative Council.
- This act authorised the British government to arrest anybody suspected of terrorist activities.
- It also authorised the government to detain such people arrested for up to 2 years without trial.
- It empowered the police to search for a place without a warrant.
- It also placed severe restrictions on the freedom of the press.
- The act was passed as per recommendations of the Rowlatt Committee chaired by a judge, Sir Sidney Rowlatt, after whom the act is named.
- The act was widely condemned by Indian leaders and the public. The bills came to be known as ‘black bills’.
- The act was passed despite unanimous opposition from the Indian members of the council, all of whom resigned in protest. These included Mohammed Ali Jinnah, Madan Mohan Malviya and Mazhar Ul Haq.
- In response to this act, a nationwide hartal was called by Gandhiji on 6th April. This was called the Rowlatt Satyagraha.
- The movement was cancelled by Gandhiji when it was marred by rioting in some provinces, particularly in Punjab where the situation was grim.
- The British government’s primary intention was to repress the growing nationalist movement in the country.
- The British were also afraid of a Ghadarite revolution in Punjab and the rest of the country.
- Two popular Congress leaders Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew were arrested.
- The protest was very intense when the act came into effect and the army was called in Punjab to tackle the situation.
- The situation in Punjab was alarming as there were riots and protests against the Rowlatt Act.
- Punjab was put under martial law which meant that it became unlawful for more than 4 people to assemble at a place.
- The Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab at that time was Michael O’Dwyer. Lord Chelmsford was India’s Viceroy.
- On the day of the festival of Baisakhi on 13th April 1919 in Jallianwala Bagh, a public garden in Amritsar, a crowd of non-violent protestors had gathered. Also among the crowd were pilgrims who had come to celebrate Baisakhi.
- General Dyer came there with his troops and blocked the only narrow entrance to the garden.
- Then, without warning, he ordered his troops to fire at the unarmed crowd which included children as well.
- The indiscriminate firing went on for about 10 minutes until the 1650 rounds of ammunition were exhausted. This resulted in the deaths of at least 1000 people and injured more than 1500 people.
- This tragedy came as a rude shock to Indians and totally destroyed their faith in the British system of justice.
- National leaders condemned the act and Dyer unequivocally.
- However, Dyer was appreciated by many in Britain and the British in India although some people in the British government were quick to criticise it. Those who criticised his actions included Winston Churchill and former Prime Minister H.H Ashquith
- The government set up the Hunter Commission to inquire into the massacre. Although the commission condemned the act by Dyer, it did not impose any disciplinary action against him.
- He was relieved of his duties in the army in 1920.
- In protest against the massacre and the British failure to give due justice to the victims, Rabindranath Tagore gave up his knighthood and Gandhiji relinquished his title ‘Kaiser-e-hind’ bestowed on him by the British for his services during the Boer War in South Africa.
- Michael O’Dwyer, the then Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab, who had approved the actions of Brigadier-General Dyer, was assassinated by Udham Singh in London in 1940 as revenge against the massacre. Udham Singh is believed to have witnessed the massacre as a child.
- When the Muslim League was formed in 1906, it was a relatively moderate organisation with a pro-British stance.
- After the First World War, the Viceroy Lord Chelmsford had solicited reform suggestions from Indians in return for the Indian support to the British war effort.
- The Muslim League led by Mohammed Ali Jinnah wanted to use this opportunity to press for constitutional reforms through a joint Hindu-Muslim platform.
- Jinnah was then a member of both the parties and he was largely responsible for the Pact.
- This was the first time that leaders of both the INC and the Muslim League were meeting for a joint session.
- At the meeting, the leaders consulted with each other and drafted a set of demands for constitutional reforms.
- In October 1916, 19 elected Indian members of the Imperial Legislative Council addressed a memorandum to the Viceroy seeking reforms.
- In November 1916, leaders from both the parties met again in Calcutta and discussed and amended the suggestions.
- Finally, at their respective annual sessions held at Lucknow in December 1916, the INC and the League confirmed the agreement. This came to be known as the Lucknow Pact.
- For his efforts, Sarojini Naidu gave Jinnah the title ‘the Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity.
- Self-government in India.
- Abolition of the Indian Council.
- Separation of the executive from the judiciary.
- Salaries of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs to be paid from British coffers and not the Indian funds.
- 1/3rd representation to be given to Muslims in the Central Government.
- The number of Muslims in the provincial legislatures to be laid down for each province.
- Separate electorates for all communities until a joint electorate is demanded by all.
- Introduction of a system of weightage for minority representation (it implied giving minorities more representation than their share in the population).
- Increasing the term of the Legislative Council to 5 years.
- Half the members of the Imperial Legislative Council to be Indians.
- All elected members to be elected directly on the basis of adult franchise. 4/5th of the members of the provincial legislatures to be elected and 1/5th to be nominated.
- Members of the Legislative Council to elect their President themselves.
- The Lucknow Pact gave the impression of Hindu-Muslim unity in the national political scene. But it was only an impression and short-lived.
- The agreement between the parties on a separate communal electorate formally established communal politics in India.
- Through this pact, the INC also tacitly accepted that India consisted of two different communities with different interests.
- This pact pushed the hitherto less relevant Muslim League into the forefront of Indian politics along with the Congress Party.
- Adopt swadeshi principles
- Adopt swadeshi habits including hand spinning & weaving
- Work for the eradication of untouchability from society
- The movement was essentially a peaceful and non-violent protest against the British government in India.
- Indians were asked to relinquish their titles and resign from nominated seats in the local bodies as a mark of protest.
- People were asked to resign from their government jobs.
- People were asked to withdraw their children from government-controlled or aided schools and colleges.
- People were asked to boycott foreign goods and use only Indian-made goods.
- People were asked to boycott the elections to the legislative councils.
- People were asked not to serve in the British army.
- It was also planned that if the above steps did not bring results, people would refuse to pay their taxes.
- The INC also demanded Swarajya or self-government.
- Only completely non-violent means would be employed to get the demands fulfilled.
- The non-cooperation movement was a decisive step in the independence movement because, for the first time, the INC was ready to forego constitutional means to achieve self-rule.
- Gandhiji had assured that Swaraj would be achieved in a year if this movement was continued to completion.
- Resentment at the British after the war: Indians thought that in return for the extensive support of manpower and resources they had provided to Britain during the First World War, they would be rewarded by autonomy at the end of the war. But the Government of India Act 1919 was dissatisfactory. In addition, the British also passed repressive acts like the Rowlatt Act which further angered many Indians who felt betrayed by the rulers despite their wartime support.
- Home Rule Movement: The Home Rule Movement started by Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak set the stage for the non-cooperation movement. The extremists and the moderates of the INC were united and the Lucknow Pact also saw solidarity between the Muslim League and the Congress Party. The return of the extremists gave the INC a militant character.
- Economic hardships due to World War I: India’s participation in the war caused a lot of economic hardships to the people. Prices of goods began to soar which affected the common man. Peasants also suffered because the prices of agricultural products did not increase. All this led to resentment against the government.
- The Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre: The repressive Rowlatt Act and the brutal massacre at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar had a profound effect on the Indian leaders and the people. Their faith in the British system of justice was broken and the whole country rallied behind its leaders who were pitching for a more aggressive and firm stance against the government.
- The Khilafat Movement: During the First World War, Turkey, which was one of the Central Powers, had fought against the British. After Turkey’s defeat, the Ottoman caliphate was proposed to be dissolved. Muslims regarded Sultan of Turkey as their Caliph (religious head of the Muslims). The Khilafat movement was launched under the leadership of Ali Brothers (Maulana Mohammed Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali), Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, and Hasrat Mohani. It got the support from Mahatma Gandhi to persuade the British government not to abolish the caliphate. The leaders of this movement accepted the non-cooperation movement of Gandhiji and led a joint protest against the British.
- Gandhiji called off the movement in February 1922 in the wake of the Chauri Chaura incident.
- In Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh, a violent mob set fire to a police station killing 22 policemen during a clash between the police and protesters of the movement.
- Gandhiji called off the movement saying people were not ready for revolt against the government through ahimsa. Several leaders like Motilal Nehru and C R Das were against the suspension of the movement only due to sporadic incidents of violence.
- Swaraj was not achieved in one year as Gandhiji had told.
- However, it was a truly mass movement where lakhs of Indians participated in the open protest against the government through peaceful means.
- It shook the British government who were stumped by the extent of the movement.
- It saw participation from both Hindus and Muslims thereby showcasing communal harmony in the country.
- This movement established the popularity of the Congress Party among the people.
- As a result of this movement, people became conscious of their political rights. They were not afraid of the government.
- Hordes of people thronged to jails willingly.
- The Indian merchants and mill owners enjoyed good profits during this period as a result of the boycott of British goods. Khadi was promoted.
- The import of sugar from Britain reduced considerably during this period.
- This movement also established Gandhiji as a leader of the masses.
- The main force behind the movement
- Announced a manifesto in 1920
- Moved the main resolution on non-cooperation in the annual session of the Congress in Nagpur in 1920
- His three subordinates and supporters, Birendranath Samsal in Midnapore, J.M. Sengupta in Chittagong and Subhash Bose in Calcutta played a major role in uniting the Hindus and Muslims
- Encouraged the formation of Kisan Sabhas
- Was against Gandhi’s decision to withdraw the movement
- Resigned from the civil service
- Appointed as the Principal of the National College in Calcutta
- At the All India Khilafat Conference, Muhammed Ali declared that ‘it was religiously unlawful for the Muslims to continue in the British Army’
- Renounced his legal practice
- Initially did not favour the movement
- Later, he was against its withdrawal
- Spread the movement in Gujarat
- The Government of India Act 1909 was dissatisfactory to the aspirations of Indians.
- The Congress Party’s split in 1907 and fiery leader Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s imprisonment from 1908 to 1914 meant that there was a lull in the national movement.
- But Tilak’s release and the advent of Annie Besant brought about a revival of the national movement.
- Annie Besant was an Irish socialist, writer and orator who supported the Irish and Indian home rule movements. She arrived in India in 1893.
- The leaders in India were divided on whether to support Britain in the war or not. Annie Besant, however, declared, “England’s need is India’s opportunity”.
- Having returned from exile in Mandalay, Tilak understood the need for a revival of the nationalist movement in the country.
- He also understood the growing importance of the Congress Party in India’s political scene. So, his first task was to get readmitted into the party. (The extremists led by Tilak had separated from the Congress).
- In the Congress session of December 1915, it was decided to let the extremists re-join the party largely due to Annie Besant’s persuasion. Besant had also recognised the need for Congress approval and the active participation of the extremists in the national struggle.
- However, Besant and Tilak were not able to convince Congress to support their decision to set up home rule leagues.
- Besant managed to convince the Congress to pledge to educative propaganda and the establishing of local-level committees. It was also agreed upon that if these conditions were not satisfied by September 1916, she would be free to set up a home rule league.
- Accordingly, she set up her Home Rule League in September 1916.
- Tilak, however, was not bound by any such condition and so had set up his league in April 1916.
- There were two home rule leagues launched.
- Tilak launched the Indian Home Rule League in April 1916 at Belgaum.
- Annie Besant launched the Home Rule League in September 1916 at Madras.
- They had the common objective of achieving self-government in India.
- There was an informal understanding between both the leagues wherein Tilak’s league worked in Maharashtra (except Bombay), Karnataka, Berar and the Central Provinces. Besant’s league worked in the rest of the country.
- Tilak’s league had its headquarters in Delhi. It had 6 branches. Besant’s league had 200 branches and was a looser organisation compared to Tilak’s.
- The two leagues worked closely with one another. However, they did not merge to avoid friction between both the leaders.
- To achieve self-government in India.
- To promote political education and discussion to set up agitation for self-government.
- To build confidence among Indians to speak against the government’s suppression.
- To demand a larger political representation for Indians from the British government.
- To revive political activity in India while maintaining the principles of the Congress Party.
- The leagues organised demonstrations and agitations.
- There were public meetings in which the leaders gave fiery speeches.
- They were able to create a stir within the country and alarm the British to such an extent that Annie Besant was arrested in June 1917.
- This move by the British created a nation-wide protest and now even moderate leaders joined the league. Besant was released in September 1917.
- The Home Rule League functioned throughout the year as opposed to the Congress Party whose activities were confined to once a year.
- The movement was able to garner huge support from a lot of educated Indians. In 1917, the two leagues combined had around 40,000 members.
- Many members of the Congress and the Muslim League joined the league. Many prominent leaders like Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Joseph Baptista, G S Kharpade and Sir S Subramanya Iyer were among its members.
- The moderates, extremists and the Muslim League were briefly united through this movement.
- The movement was able to spread political consciousness to more regions in the country.
- This movement led to the Montague Declaration of 1917 in which it was declared that there would be more Indians in the government leading to the development of self-governing institutions ultimately realising responsible governments in India. This Declaration (also known as August Declaration) implied that the demand for home rule would no longer be considered seditious. This was the biggest significance of the movement.
- The movement was not a mass movement. It was restricted to educated people and college students.
- The leagues did not find a lot of support among Muslims, Anglo-Indians and non-Brahmins from Southern India as they thought home rule would mean a rule of the upper caste Hindu majority.
- Many of the moderates were satisfied with the government’s assurance of reforms (as preluded in the Montague Declaration). They did not take the movement further.
- Annie Besant kept oscillating between being satisfied with the government talk of reforms and pushing the home rule movement forward. She was not able to provide firm leadership to her followers. (Although ultimately she did call the reforms ‘unworthy of Indian acceptance’).
- In September 1918, Tilak went to England to pursue a libel case against Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol, British journalist and author of the book ‘Indian Unrest’. The book contained deprecatory comments and had called Tilak the ‘Father of Indian Unrest.’ (Tilak lost the case).
- Tilak’s absence and Besant’s inability to lead the people led to the movement’s fizzing out.
- After the war, Mahatma Gandhi gained prominence as a leader of the masses and the Home Rule Leagues merged with the Congress Party in 1920.
- By 1930, the Congress Party had declared that Poorna Swarajya or complete independence was to be the sole aim of the freedom struggle.
- It started observing 26 January as Poorna Swarajya Day, and it was decided that civil disobedience was to be the means employed to achieve it.
- Mahatma Gandhi was asked to plan and organise the first such act. Gandhiji chose to break the salt tax in defiance of the government.
- Some members of Congress were skeptical of the choice and other Indians and the British dismissed this choice of salt with disdain.
- The then Viceroy, Lord Irwin was hardly perturbed by the threat of a salt protest and the government did nothing to prevent the salt march from taking place.
- But Gandhiji’s choice of using salt was nothing short of brilliant because it touched a chord with every Indian.
- It was a commodity required by all and the poor people were hurt because of the salt tax.
- Indians had been making salt from seawater free of cost until the passing of the 1882 Salt Act that gave the British monopoly over the production of salt and authority to impose a salt tax. It was a criminal offence to violate the salt act.
- Gandhiji also hoped to unite Hindus and Muslims as the cause was common to both groups.
- The salt tax accounted for 8.2% of the British Raj revenue from tax and Gandhiji knew that the government could not ignore this.
- Gandhiji informed Lord Irwin of his plan on 2nd March 1930.
- He would lead a group of people from his Ashram at Sabarmati on 12th March 1930 and walk through the villages of Gujarat.
- On reaching the coastal village of Dandi, he would make salt from seawater thereby breaking the salt act. Gandhiji started the march as planned with 80 of his followers. They were given strict instructions not to resort to any kind of violence.
- Thousands of people thronged the path from Sabarmati Ashram to Ahmedabad to witness the historic event.
- At the end of every day, Gandhiji would address thousands of people and attack the government in his speeches.
- Gandhiji talked to foreign journalists and wrote articles for newspapers on the way. This pushed the Indian independence movement into the forefront of world media. Gandhiji became a household name in the West.
- Sarojini Naidu joined him on the way. Every day more and more people joined him and on 5th April 1930, they reached Dandi.
- At this time, there were about 50,000 people participating in the march.
- On the morning of 6th April 1930, Gandhiji broke the salt law by making salt. Thousands of people followed suit.
- Around 60,000 people including Gandhiji himself were arrested by the government.
- There was widespread civil disobedience carried on by the people. Apart from the salt tax, other unpopular tax laws were being defied like the forest laws, chowkidar tax, land tax, etc.
- The government tried to suppress the movement with more laws and censorship.
- The Congress Party was declared illegal. But this did not deter the satyagrahis who continued the movement.
- There were some incidents of violence in Calcutta and Karachi but Gandhiji did not call off the movement, unlike the previous time with the non-cooperation movement.
- C Rajagopalachari led a similar march on the southeast coast from Trichy to Vedaranyam in Tamil Nadu. He too was arrested for making salt.
- K Kelappan led a march in the Malabar region from Calicut to Payyanur.
- There were similar marches and salt was produced illegally in Assam and Andhra Pradesh.
- In Peshawar, the Satyagraha was organised and led by Gandhiji’s disciple, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan. In April 1930 he was arrested. Khan’s followers (called Khudai Khidmatgars) whom he had trained in Satyagraha had gathered in a marketplace called the Qissa Khwani Bazaar. There they were fired at by the British Indian Army despite being unarmed.
- Thousands of women also took part in the Satyagraha.
- Foreign clothes were boycotted. Liqueur shops were picketed. There were strikes all over.
- On May 21, 1930, there was a protest against the Dharasana Salt Works by peaceful non-violent protestors led by Sarojini Naidu. The police lathi-charged the protestors brutally and it resulted in the deaths of 2 people with several others being injured. This event was reported in the international media and there was a condemnation of British policies followed in India.
- The British government was shaken by the movement. Also, its non-violent nature made it difficult for them to suppress it violently.
- This movement had three main effects:
- It pushed Indian freedom struggle into the limelight in western media.
- It brought a lot of people including women and the depressed classes directly in touch with the freedom movement.
- It showed the power of the non-violent Satyagraha as a tool in fighting imperialism.
- Gandhiji was released from prison in 1931 and he met with Lord Irwin who was keen to put an end to the civil disobedience movement and the media attention it had caught.
- As per the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, the civil disobedience movement would be ended and Indians, in return, would be allowed to make salt for domestic use. Lord Irwin also agreed to release the arrested Indians. Gandhiji attended the Second Round Table Conference in London as an ‘equal’.
- The movement did not procure any major concessions from the government.
- Muslim support was limited.
- Peasant rebellions
- Tribal movements
- Movements by the deposed chieftains/landlords
- Politico-Religious Movements
- In Hinduism, a Sanyasi is a person who has renounced the world and is free from all attachments and worldly desires.
- The Sanyasis who had revolted against the English in the 18th century were not necessarily men who had renounced the world. There were many sects of Sanyasis who travelled from northern India to various religious places and shrines in Bengal.
- Some of the Sanyasis were naga sadhus, i.e., ascetics who had renounced clothes. But some others were people who wore clothes and were also permitted to marry.
- The British were wary of these wandering men and called them by various epithets like ‘erratic beggars’, ‘gypsies of Hindusthan’, ‘lawless mendicants’, ‘religious vagrants’, etc.
- After the British had acquired revenue rights in Bengal, many zamindars there had fallen upon hard times owing to the steep tax rates.
- It was the practice of the Sanyasis to collect alms and contributions from these zamindars during their religious travels. This was stopped when the zamindars found it too difficult to provide alms since after paying the British their due, they were hardly left with anything substantial.
- The British considered the Sanyasis looters and imposed restrictions on the Sanyasis barring them from visiting holy places.
- The Sanyasis rose in rebellion against the British and raided English factories and government treasuries.
- This rebellion was centred in the forests of Murshidabad and Baikunthupur, Bengal.
- In 1771, 150 unarmed sanyasis were killed under the orders of Warren Hastings.
- The Sanyasi uprising went on for about 50 years and was suppressed completely only in the 1820s.
- Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s novel Anandamath, written in 1882, was set in the backdrop of the Sanyasi Rebellion. This book was banned by the British. India’s National Song ‘Vande Mataram’ was taken from this novel.
- Fakir uprising was started after the British annexation of Bengal by Fakirs or wandering Muslim mendicants.
- They were led by Majnu Shah.
- He defied the British authority and began to levy taxes on the farmers and zamindars in Bengal.
- They looted English factories acquiring cash, arms and ammunitions.
- Majnu Shah was supported by Rajputs, Pathans and disbanded Indian soldiers.
- After Majnu Shah’s death, his brother Chirag Shah led the operations.
- Other notable leaders of the uprising were Bhavani Pathak and Devi Chaudhurani.
- The Pagal Panthis were a religious order founded by Karim Shah in the Mymensingh and Sherpur districts of Bengal.
- The order’s philosophy was that of religious harmony and non-violence incorporating tenets of Sufism, Hinduism and animism.
- Under Karim Shah’s son Tipu Shah, the order revolted against the British government by organising peasant rebellions.
- They were against the oppressive tax regime of the British.
- Tipu Shah captured Sherpur in 1825 and practically ruled over the Sherpur and Mymensingh areas. Disturbances continued till the 1850’s.
- The Faraizis were followers of a Muslim sect founded by Haji Shariatullah.
- It spread to Faridpur, Bakharganj and Mymensingh districts of Bengal.
- This movement supported the cause of the tenants against the landlords and the British government.
- It was led by Shariatullah’s son Dadu Mian.
- The Kukas, also called Namdharis, were a sect within Sikhism.
- They started out as a group for religious purification in Sikhism but under Ram Singh, the movement acquired a political overtone with the established aim of restoring Sikh rule in Punjab and ousting the foreign powers.
- The Kukas wore only white, hand-woven clothes and boycotted British education, products and laws.
- In 1872, Ram Singh was captured and exiled to Rangoon and 65 Kukas were blown away from canons by the British.
- Muslims had arrived in Kerala in the 7th century AD as traders via the Arabian Sea even before north India was invaded by Muslim armies from the west.
- They were given permission to carry on trade and settle by the native rulers. Many of them married local women and their descendants came to be called Moplahs (which means son-in-law in Malayalam).
- Before Tipu Sultan’s attack on Malabar, in the traditional land system in Malabar, the Jenmi or the landlord held the land which was let out to others for farming. There were mainly three hierarchical levels of ownership including the cultivator, and each of them took a share of the produce.
- The Moplahs were mostly cultivators of the land under this system and the Jenmis were upper caste Hindus.
- Many Hindu landlords fled Malabar to neighbouring areas to avoid persecution and forced conversions.
- During this time, the Moplah tenants were accorded ownership rights to the lands.
- After the death of Tipu Sultan in 1799 in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, Malabar came under British authority as part of the Madras Presidency.
- The British set out to restore ownership rights to the Jenmis who had earlier fled the region.
- Jenmis were now given absolute ownership rights of the land which was not the case previously.
- The peasants were now facing high rents and a lack of security of tenure.
- This caused a series of riots by the Moplahs starting from 1836. Between 1836 and 1896, they killed many government officers and Hindu landlords.
- The Khilafat Movement had started in 1919 in India in support of the restoration of the caliphate in Turkey. The Indian National Congress (INC) was aligned with it.
- The Khilafat meetings in Malabar incited communal feelings among the Moplahs and it became a movement directed against the British as well as the Hindu landlords of Malabar.
- There was large-scale violence which saw systematic persecution of Hindus and British officials. Many homes and temples were destroyed.
- The prominent leaders of the rebellion were Ali Musaliyar and Variyankunnath Kunjahammed Haji.
- From August 1921 till about the end of the year, the rebels had under their control large parts of Malabar.
- By the end of the year, the rebellion was crushed by the British who had raised a special battalion, the Malabar Special Force for the riot.
- In November 1921, 67 Moplah prisoners were killed when they were being transported in a closed freight wagon from Tirur to the Central Prison in Podanur. They died of suffocation. This event is called the Wagon Tragedy.
- The Moplah Rebellion is often considered one of the first cases of nationalist uprisings in Southern India. However, it is widely debated as a few experts mention the Moplah revolt to have a communal touch. Some say that it has to be considered as the struggle against British supremacy while some mention that it culminated in an Anti-Hindu movement.
- Sir C Shankaran Nair, a former President of the INC, criticised Gandhi’s support of the Khilafat Movement as one of the causes of the violence.
- Polygars (Palaiyakkarars) were feudal lords who were appointed as military chiefs and administrative governors from the time of the Vijayanagara Empire in parts of Southern India. (They were given the charge of a Palayam or a group of villages).
- It was the Polygars who collected taxes from the cultivators.
- But the East India Company came into conflict with the Polygars over the question of who should collect taxes, and sought to control the Polygars.
- The first rebellion, also called the First Polygar War broke out in September 1799 in Tirunelveli district in modern Tamil Nadu.
- The Polygars were led by Kattabomma Nayak (also called Veerapandi Kattabomman) who was in charge of Panchalankurichi Palayam.
- He had defied the British for 7 years refusing to accept their suzerainty and pay revenue to them.
- In the battles with the British troops, Kattabomman initially escaped but was subsequently caught and publicly hanged as a warning to other Polygars.
- The Second Polygar War (1800 – 01) is also called the South Indian Rebellion due to its scale and reach.
- This South Indian Confederacy consisted of Marudu Pandian of Sivaganga, Dheeran Chinnamalai of Kongu Nadu, Gopala Nayak of Dindigul, Krishnappa Nayak and Dhoondaji of Mysore and Pazhassi Raja Kerala Varma of Malabar.
- It took the British more than a year to suppress this rebellion.
- After this, the Carnatic Treaty of 1801 was signed which gave the British direct control over Tamil Nadu. With this, the authority of the Polygars also ended.
- Velu Thambi was the Diwan (Prime Minister) of the Kingdom of Travancore.
- He rose in revolt against the British when they tried to oust him from the post of Diwan. He was also against the heavy financial burden imposed on the kingdom by the Subsidiary Alliance Treaty.
- Velu Thampi was able to garner good support from the people of the land against the British.
- He took his own life in order to avoid capture by the British in 1809.
- The tribals’ mainstay were shifting agriculture, hunting, fishing and the use of forest produce.
- With the influx of non-tribals into the traditional regions of the tribals, the practice of settled agriculture was introduced. This led to a loss of land for the tribal population.
- The tribals were reduced to being landless agricultural labourers.
- The British introduced money lenders into the tribal areas which led to severe exploitation of the local tribals. They became bonded labourers under the new economic system.
- The tribal societies had a system of joint ownership of land which was replaced by the notion of private property.
- There were restrictions imposed on the use of forest produce, on shifting agriculture and on hunting practices. This led to the loss of livelihood for the tribals.
- Tribal society was traditionally egalitarian compared to mainstream society which was marked by caste and class distinctions. With the coming of the non-tribals or outsiders, the tribals came to be classified under the lowest rungs of society.
- A Forest Department was set up in 1864 by the government mainly to control the rich resources of Indian forests. The Government Forest Act of 1865 and the Indian Forest Act of 1878 established complete government monopoly over the forested land.
- The work of the Christian missionaries also led to social upheaval in tribal society and this was also resented by them.
- The Kols were one of the tribes inhabiting the Chhotanagpur area.
- They lived in complete autonomy under their traditional chiefs but this changed when the British came.
- Along with the British came the moneylenders and the merchants.
- The Kols then lost their lands to farmers from outside and also had to pay huge amounts of money in taxes. This led to many becoming bonded labourers.
- The British judicial policies also caused resentment among the Kols.
- There was an insurrection in 1831-32 which saw the Kols organise themselves and revolt against the British and the moneylenders.
- They killed many outsiders and burned houses. This armed resistance went on for two years after which it was brutally suppressed by the British with their superior weaponry.
- The Kol Rebellion was so intense that troops had to be called in from Calcutta and Benares to crush it.
- The Santhal Hul (also known as the Santhal revolt) occurred in the regions of present-day Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal against the British as well the Zamindari system from 1855 until 1856 when the movement was crushed by the British.
- When the Zamindari system was introduced in the Bengal presidency, the British and the Zamindars claimed the traditional Santhal land as their own.
- The Santhals were exploited mercilessly by the landlords who charged exorbitant rates of interest (sometimes as high as 500%) which ensured that the tribals were never able to repay their loan.
- They lost their land and also were turned into bonded labourers.
- They had to suffer extortions, forceful deprivation of property, abuse and violence, cheating in business deals, wilful trampling of their crops, etc.
- The government supported the landlords instead of helping the tribals whose grievances were genuine.
- The rebellion started in June 1855 when two brothers Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu organised 10000 Santhals and began an armed uprising.
- They killed many moneylenders and Company agents. The revolt was very intense and massive in scale.
- The Santhal community celebrates the day of rebellion to this day.
- The revolt was violently suppressed by the British with about 20000 Santhals being killed including the two leaders.
- The Mundas inhabited the Chotanagpur area.
- The Khuntkatti system, which was a joint holding of land, prevailed among the Mundas. But the advent of the British and the outsider-Zamindars replaced the Khunkatti with the Zamindari system. This caused indebtedness and forc ed labour among the tribals.
- There were many rebellions during the late 18th century and the 19th century against the British and the dikus (landlords, moneylenders, merchants).
- The Mundas were able to get an able and charismatic leader in Birsa Munda who proclaimed a rebellion in 1894.
- He organised his people to revolt openly against the government. He urged people to stop paying debts and taxes.
- He was arrested and spent 2 years in jail before being released in 1897.
- In December 1899, he launched an armed struggle on the landlords and the government.
- The Mundas torched police stations, houses of the landlords, churches and British property.
- In 1900 Birsa Munda was caught. He died in jail due to cholera aged just 25.
- Indigo cultivation started in Bengal in 1777.
- Indigo was in high demand worldwide. Trade in indigo was lucrative due to the demand for blue dye in Europe.
- European planters enjoyed a monopoly over indigo and they forced Indian farmers to grow indigo by signing fraudulent deals with them.
- The cultivators were forced to grow indigo in place of food crops.
- They were advanced loans for this purpose. Once the farmers took loans, they could never repay it due to the high rates of interest.
- The tax rates were also exorbitant.
- The farmers were brutally oppressed if they could not pay the rent or refused to do as asked by the planters.
- They were forced to sell indigo at non-profitable rates so as to maximize the European planters’ profits.
- If a farmer refused to grow indigo and planted paddy instead, the planters resorted to illegal means to get the farmer to grow indigo such as looting and burning crops, kidnapping the farmer’s family members, etc.
- The government always supported the planters who enjoyed many privileges and judicial immunities.
- The indigo farmers revolted in the Nadia district of Bengal by refusing to grow indigo. They attacked the policemen who intervened. The planters, in response to this, increased the rents and evicted the farmers which led to more agitations.
- In April 1860, all the farmers in the Barasat division of the districts Nadia and Pabna went on a strike and refused to grow indigo.
- The strike spread to other parts of Bengal.
- The farmers were led by the Biswas brothers of Nadia, Rafiq Mondal of Malda and Kader Molla of Pabna. The revolt also received support from many zamindars notably Ramrattan Mullick of Narail.
- The revolt was suppressed and many farmers were slaughtered by the government and some of the zamindars.
- The revolt was backed by the Bengali intelligentsia, Muslims and the missionaries. The whole of the rural population supported the revolt.
- The press also supported the revolt and played its part in portraying the plight of the farmers and fighting for their cause.
- The play Nil Darpan (The Mirror of Indigo) by Dinabandhu Mitra written in 1858 – 59 portrayed the farmers’ situation accurately. It showed how farmers were coerced into planting indigo without adequate payment. The play became a talking point and it urged the Bengali intelligentsia to lend support to the indigo revolt. Reverend James Long translated the play into English on the authority by the Secretary to the Governor of Bengal, W S Seton-Karr. The planters who were treated as villains in the play sued Rev. Long for libel. Rev. Long was pronounced guilty and had to pay Rs.1000 as compensation and serve a month in prison.
- The revolt was largely non-violent and it acted as a precursor to Gandhiji’s non-violent satyagraha in later years.
- The revolt was not a spontaneous one. It was built up over years of oppression and suffering of the farmers at the hands of the planters and the government.
- Hindus and Muslims joined hands against their oppressors in this rebellion.
- It also saw the coming together of many zamindars with the ryots or farmers.
- The revolt was a success despite its brutal quelling by the government.
- In response to the revolt, the government appointed the Indigo Commission in 1860. In the report, a statement read, ‘not a chest of Indigo reached England without being stained with human blood.’
- A notification was also issued which stated that farmers could not be forced to grow indigo.
- By the end of 1860, indigo cultivation was literally washed away from Bengal since the planters closed their factories and left for good.
- The revolt was made immensely popular by its portrayal in the play Nil Darpan and also in many other works of prose and poetry. This led to the revolt taking center stage in the political consciousness of Bengal and impacted many later movements in Bengal.
- In the Bombay Deccan region, the British had introduced the Ryotwari settlement as the system of land revenue.
- Under this system, the revenue of land was fixed on a yearly basis.
- In the Ryotwari system, the agreement was between the government and the ryot (cultivator) directly.
- The revenue was fixed according to the soil-type and the paying capacity of the farmer. However, the revenues were so high that farmers found it extremely difficult to pay their dues. Any failure in the rains would deteriorate the situation.
- To pay their revenues farmers generally took loans from moneylenders. Once the loans were taken, the farmers found it impossible to repay them since the interest rates were steep.
- Peasant indebtedness became a serious problem in the rural areas.
- In 1861, civil war broke out in the USA. USA was the largest supplier of cotton to Britain. Once the civil war broke out, the demand for cotton from India became high and this led to a surge in cotton cultivation in India and there was a period of ‘boom’ then.
- However, once the war in America ended, cotton demand sunk and this affected the farmers adversely.
- The moneylenders, who during the time of the civil war were generous with their loans, once again refused the farmers loans.
- This infuriated the farmers because they were completely dependent on the moneylenders, who were insensitive to their plight.
- The uprising began at Supa village in the district of Poona.
- In 1875, farmers attacked a market place where many moneylenders lived. They burnt account books and looted grain shops. They also torched the houses of sahukars (people who were both traders and moneylenders).
- The farmers were led by the village headmen.
- The farmers’ main motive was to destroy the account books of the moneylenders and they resorted to violence only when these books were not handed over to them.
- They also socially boycotted the moneylenders.
- The movement continued for 2 months and spread to over 30 villages.
- The movement also got support from the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha co-founded by M G Ranade.
- It took several months for the police to restore order in the countryside.
- The Bombay government initially dismissed the uprising as trivial.
- However, the Government of India pressurised Bombay to enquire into the matter.
- Accordingly, the Deccan Riots Commission was set up which presented a report to the British Parliament in 1878.
- In 1879, the Agriculturists Relief Act was passed which ensured that the farmers could not be arrested and imprisoned if they were unable to pay their debts.
- The East India Company was intent on squeezing out maximum revenue from the peasants.
- At that time, the Ijaradari system was in place according to which the ijardar/ izaredar (revenue farmer) was contracted by the Company to pay revenue that was fixed either annually or every 5 years on a piece of land. The company would auction off the land to the highest bidder (who became the ijardar).
- The ijardar was not interested in the welfare of the farmers who cultivated the land under him or in the development of the land.
- His sole aim was to squeeze out maximum revenue from the farmers so that he could pay the company and also earn some profit for himself.
- The agrarian economy suffered a lot under the various ‘experiments’ by the British on the land revenue system. Famines became commonplace and rural indebtedness surged. The farmers became mired in deep poverty.
- The tax rates were so high that the farmers found it almost impossible to pay the revenue.
- The zamindars also suffered under this system since the revenue demands were placed on him and he stood to lose his zamindari if he defaulted.
- The ijardars resorted to oppressive means to extract the revenue. Debi Singh, who was the ijardar of Rangpur and Dinajpur was especially severe.
- Debi Singh practised extremely harsh measures against the peasants.
- When the peasants sent a petition to the company asking for relief, it did not pay any heed to the farmers’ grievances. This led to the farmers taking things into their own hands.
- The uprising started on January 18, 1783, when peasants and zamindars took control of the Parganas of Kakina, Kazirhat and Tepa in district Rangpur.
- They attacked the courts, looted grains and released prisoners. For a whole 5 weeks, these areas were under the control of the rebels who appointed a nawab and other officials for running a parallel government.
- One of the main leaders of the revolt was Kena Sarkar.
- They forbade all revenue payments to the company.
- The uprising spread to Dinajpur also.
- Ultimately, the uprising was put down by the British and many rebels were killed.
- This uprising brought to light the weaknesses of the ijardari system.
- Though the rebellion was suppressed, the government brought about some reforms in the farming system.
- It paved the way for a more permanent system of land revenue.
- This rebellion saw unity between Hindus and Muslims.
- Diarchy was introduced in India by the Government of India Act 1919. The Act also promised that a commission would be appointed after 10 years to review the working and progress made on the measures taken through the Act.
- The Indian people and leaders wanted a reform of the diarchy form of government.
- The Conservative Party-led government in the UK feared a defeat at the hands of the Labour Party in the elections due, and so hastened the appointment of a commission in 1928, even though it was due only in 1929 as per the 1919 Act.
- The Commission was composed entirely of British members with not a single Indian member being included in it. This was seen as an insult to Indians who were right in saying that their destiny could not be determined by a handful of British people.
- The Secretary of State for India, Lord Birkenhead had berated Indians on account of their perceived inability to formulate a concrete scheme of reforms through consensus among all sections of the Indian political scene.
- Lord Birkenhead was responsible for setting up the Commission.
- Clement Atlee was a member of the Commission. He would later become Britain’s Prime Minister during Indian independence and partition in 1947.
- Indians were outraged at their exclusion from the Commission.
- The Congress Party decided to boycott the Commission at their session at Madras in 1927.
- The Muslim League led by M A Jinnah also boycotted it. A certain section of members led by Muhammad Shafi supported the government.
- The Justice Party in the South decided to side with the government on this issue.
- When the Commission landed in February 1928, there were mass protests, hartals and black flag demonstrations all over the country.
- People were chanting the slogan, ‘Simon Go Back.’
- The police resorted to lathi charges to suppress the movement. Even senior leaders like Pandit Nehru were not spared.
- In Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai, who was leading the demonstration against the Simon Commission, was brutally lathi-charged. He died later that year due to injuries sustained then.
- Dr B R Ambedkar had submitted a report on behalf of the Bahishkrita Hitakarini Sabha on the education of the depressed classes in the Bombay Presidency.
- The Commission’s report was published in 1930. Before the publication, the government assured that henceforth, Indian opinion would be considered and that the natural outcome of constitutional reforms would be dominion status for India.
- It recommended the abolition of diarchy and the setting-up of representative governments in the provinces.
- It also recommended the retention of separate communal electorates until the communal tensions had died down.
- The Simon Commission led to the Government of India Act 1935 which acted as the basis for many parts of the current Indian Constitution.
- The first provincial elections were held in 1937 and it saw Congress governments being set up in almost all the provinces.
- The arrival of the Commission gave an impetus to the Indian independence movement by galvanizing leaders and masses.
- After the Chauri Chaura incident, Mahatma Gandhi withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922.
- This was met with a lot of disagreements among leaders of the Congress Party.
- While some wanted to continue non-cooperation, others wanted to end the legislature boycott and contest elections. The former were called no-changers and such leaders included Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Vallabhai Patel, C Rajagopalachari, etc.
- The others who wanted to enter the legislative council and obstruct the British government from within were called the pro-changers. These leaders included C R Das, Motilal Nehru, Srinivasa Iyengar, etc.
- In 1922, in the Gaya session of the Congress, C R Das (who was presiding over the session) moved a proposal to enter the legislatures but it was defeated. Das and other leaders broke away from the Congress and formed the Swaraj Party.
- C R Das was the President and the Secretary was Motilal Nehru.
- Prominent leaders of the Swaraj Party included N C Kelkar, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Subhas Chandra Bose.
- Attaining dominion status.
- Obtaining the right to frame a constitution.
- Establishing control over the bureaucracy.
- Obtaining full provincial autonomy.
- Attaining Swarajya (self-rule).
- Getting people the right to control government machinery.
- Organising industrial and agricultural labour.
- Controlling the local and municipal bodies.
- Having an agency for propaganda outside the country.
- Establishing a federation of Asian countries to promote trade and commerce.
- Engaging in the constructive programmes of the Congress.
- Gandhiji and both the pro-changers and the no-changers realised the importance of putting up a united front in order to get reforms from the government.
- So, it was decided that the Swarajists would contest elections as a separate ‘group’ within the Congress Party.
- The Swaraj Party won 42 out of 104 seats to the Central Legislature in 1923.
- The party’s programme was to obstruct the government. They wanted to create deadlocks on every measure.
- They boycotted all official functions and receptions held by the government.
- They voiced their grievances and aspirations in the Legislative Assembly.
- Swarajist Vithalbhai Patel became speaker of the Central Legislative Assembly in 1925.
- They outvoted the government many times even in matters related to budgetary grants.
- They were able to defeat the Public Safety Bill in 1928.
- They exposed the weaknesses of the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms.
- They gave fiery speeches in the Assembly on self-rule and civil liberties.
- They could not coordinate their struggle inside the Assembly with the mass freedom struggle outside.
- They totally relied on newspapers to carry their work and message in the Assembly to the outside world.
- Some of them could not resist the perks of power. Motilal Nehru was a member of the Skeen Committee and A Ramaswamy Iyengar was a member of the Public Accounts Committee.
- Their policy of obstructionism had its flaws and limitations.
- The death of C R Das in 1925 further weakened the party.
- There were internal divisions among the Swarajists. They were divided into the responsivists and the non-responsivists. The responsivists (M M Malaviya, Lala Lajpat Rai, N C Kelkar) wanted to cooperate with the government and hold offices, whereas the non-responsivists (Motilal Nehru) withdrew from legislatures in 1926.
- The party was in shambles when it went into the 1926 elections, and as a result, did not perform well.
- The party’s failure to support the peasant cause in Bengal led to a loss of support of many members.
- The party merged with the Congress in 1930.
- The Bardoli Taluk in modern-day Gujarat was hit by floods and famines in 1925, which adversely affected crop yield. This affected the farmers financially.
- Ignoring the plight of the farmers, the Bombay Presidency increased the tax rates by 22%.
- Despite petitions and appeals from civic groups and farmers to review this unjust hike in tax rates in lieu of the grave situation, the government decided to go ahead with tax collection.
- In 1927, the local Congress Party published a report to show that the farmers could not carry the burden of the enhanced assessment. But the authorities did not budge.
- In January 1928, farmers in Bardoli invited Vallabhai Patel to launch the protest movement wherein all of them resolved not to pay taxes.
- They also assured Gandhiji of their commitment to non-violence.
- Patel agreed to take on the leadership role only after getting assurances from the farmers of their resolve to the movement. He informed them of the possible consequences of their move such as confiscation of land and property and imprisonment.
- Patel got in touch with the government and apprised it of the situation. He got the reply that the government was unwilling to make any concessions.
- Gandhiji also lend support to the movement through his writings in ‘Young India’ magazine.
- Patel was an exemplary commander of his non-violent ‘army’ in Bardoli.
- He divided the taluk into camps and organised hundreds of men and women under the camps.
- The volunteers came from Hindu, Muslim and Parsi communities also.
- From the camps, volunteers issued news bulletins, campaigns and also made speeches educating the masses about the need to be disciplined and prepared for austerity.
- Door-to-door campaigning was also done.
- A large number of women took active part in the movement. It was these women who gave Patel the moniker ‘Sardar’.
- Peasants were asked to take oaths in the name of god that they would not pay the taxes.
- Those who paid taxes or were supportive of the British were socially boycotted.
- They also worked for the betterment of the Kaliparaj caste (farmers who worked as landless labourers).
- They refused non-essential goods to government offices in the area.
- They resisted eviction and confiscation (jabti) in unique ways. They had informers in the government offices who would give prior information as to if and when a jabti notice was going to be carried out. The whole village would then move to another place and the officers would be faced with an empty village when they arrived to confiscate the property.
- K M Munshi and Lalji Naranji resigned from the Bombay Legislative Council.
- Although the movement was local, it received nation-wide attention and support.
- Fearing things could go out of hand, the government set up the Maxwell-Broomfield commission to look into the matter.
- The revenue was reduced to 6.03%.
- The peasants were returned their confiscated land.
- Patel emerged as a national leader after the success of the Bardoli Satyagraha. He showed his remarkable organising skills.
- The movement was focused on the conditions of the rich and middle-class farmers and largely neglected the poor farmers.
- It did not raise the problem of Hali Pratha (a kind of bonded labour system).
- It is said that the movement was an experiment on Satyagraha as a method of freedom struggle. The basic problems of the peasants were not addressed.
- According to the prevalent caste system in Kerala and the rest of India, low-caste Hindus were not allowed to enter into the temples.
- In Kerala, they were not allowed even to walk on the roads that led to the temples also. (Kerala state was formed in 1956; earlier it was broadly divided into Malabar (North Kerala), Cochin and Travancore kingdoms).
- In the Kakinada meet of the Congress Party in 1923, T K Madhavan presented a report citing the discrimination that the depressed castes’ people were facing in Kerala. It was after this session that movements against untouchability need to be promoted. In Kerala, a committee was formed comprising people of different castes to fight untouchability
- .The committee chaired by K Kelappan, comprised of T K Madhavan, Velayudha Menon, K Neelakantan Namboothiri and T R Krishnaswami Iyer.
- In February 1924, they decided to launch a ‘Keralaparyatanam’ in order to get temple entry and also the right to use public roads for every Hindu irrespective of caste or creed.
- The movement began on 30th March 1924.
- At the Vaikom Mahadeva Temple, there was a board which denied the entry of lower caste people( avarnas).
- The Satyagrahis made batches of three and entered the temple. They were resisted and arrested by the police.
- Gandhiji, Chatampi Swamikal and Sree Narayana Guru supported the movement.
- The movement gained prominence in the entire India and support came from far and wide.
- The Akalis of Punjab supported by setting up kitchens to provide food to the Satyagrahis.
- Even Christian and Muslim leaders were in support of the movement. However, Gandhiji was not entirely convinced by this as he wanted the movement to be an intra-Hindu affair.
- On Gandhiji’s advice, the movement was taken back temporarily in April 1924.
- After discussions with Hindu caste people failed, the leaders again started the movement. Leaders T K Madhavan and K P Kesava Menon were arrested.
- E V Ramaswami Naicker (Periyar) came from Tamil Nadu to support the movement and then he was arrested.
- On 1st October 1924, a group of savarnas (forward castes) marched in a procession and submitted a petition to the Regent Maharani Sethu Lakshmi Bai of Travancore with approximately 25000 signatures for allowing entry to the temple for everyone.
- Gandhiji also met with the Regent Maharani. This procession of savarnas was led by Mannath Padmanabhan Nair. Beginning with about 500 people at Vaikom, the number increased to approximately 5000 when the procession reached Thiruvananthapuram in the month of November 1924.
- On 23rd November 1925, all the gates of the temple were opened to Hindus except the eastern gate. In 1928, backward castes got the right to walk on public roads leading to all temples in Travancore.
- This was the first time that an organized movement was being conducted on such a massive scale for the basic rights of the untouchables and other backward castes in Kerala.
- The Second Round Table Conference was to be held in 1931 in London.
- In 1930, the Salt Satyagraha was conducted and India and Gandhi received worldwide attention. The British government in India was criticised for its unjust treatment of Indians.
- Gandhi and many other leaders were imprisoned along with thousands of Indians.
- Lord Irwin wanted the issue to come to an end.
- So, Gandhi was released from prison in January 1931.
- The then Congress President Sardar Vallabhai Patel authorised Gandhi to hold talks with Lord Irwin.
- Accordingly, Gandhi met Irwin and held negotiations. It was for the first time that the two were meeting as ‘equals’.
- The Indian National Congress (INC) agreed to take part in the Round Table Conference.
- The INC would stop the civil disobedience movement.
- Withdrawal of all ordinances that curbed the activities of the Congress.
- Withdrawal of all prosecutions except those involving violent crimes.
- Release of those who were arrested for taking part in the civil disobedience movement.
- Removal of the salt tax.
- The INC participated in the Second Round Table Conference which was held in 1931 during September – December.
- The government agreed to withdraw all ordinances.
- It agreed to release all political prisoners to save those involved in violence.
- It agreed to allow peaceful picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops.
- It agreed to revoke the ban on the INC.
- It agreed to restore the confiscated properties of the Satyagrahis.
- It agreed to permit the collection of salt by people near the sea coasts.
- It agreed to forego fines not yet collected.
- It agreed to the lenient treatment of all government servants who had resigned from service in the wake of the civil disobedience movement.
- A public inquiry into police excesses during its suppression of the movement.
- Commuting the death sentences of Bhagat Singh and his associates to life sentences.
- There were increasing demands of granting dominion status to India among a certain section of the British polity.
- In India, the freedom movement was in full swing with its demand for swaraj or self-rule spearheaded by the charismatic Gandhi.
- The conferences were based on the recommendation of Muhammad Ali Jinnah to Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy of India and James Ramsay MacDonald, the then British Prime Minister, and the Simon Commission report.
- It was for the first time that the Indians and the British were meeting as ‘equals’. The first conference started on November 12th, 1930.
- 58 political leaders from British India.
- 16 delegates from the native princely states.
- 16 delegates from the three British political parties.
- The Indian National Congress decided not to participate in the conference. Many of the INC leaders were imprisoned due to their involvement in the civil disobedience movement.
- Among the British-Indians, the following representatives attended the conference: Muslim League, Hindus, Justice Party, Sikhs, liberals, Parsis, Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans, landlords, labour, women, universities, Sindh, Burma, other provinces, and the representatives from the Government of India.
- Federal structure
- Provincial constitution
- Provinces of Sindh and NWFP
- Minorities
- Defence services
- Franchise
- Executive responsibility to the legislature
- Dr B R Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for the ‘untouchables’.
- Tej Bahadur Sapru moved the idea of an All-India Federation. This was supported by the Muslim League. The princely states also supported this on the condition that their internal sovereignty is maintained.
- The First Round Table Conference lasted till 19th January 1931.
- Although many principles on reforms were agreed upon, not much was implemented and the Congress Party carried on its civil disobedience. The Conference was regarded as a failure.
- The British government understood the importance and the need for the Congress Party to make any decision on India’s political future.
- British delegates belonging to various political parties including the British Prime
Minister, James Ramsay Macdonald. - Indian princely states represented by Maharajas, princes and divans.
- British Indians represented by:
Indian National Congress (INC) – Mahatma Gandhi, Rangaswami Iyengar, Madan
Mohan Malaviya - Muslims – Md. Ali Jinnah, Aga Khan III, Muhammad Iqbal, etc.
- Hindus – M R Jayakar, etc.
- Depressed classes – Dr B R Ambedkar
- Women – Sarojini Naidu, etc.
- Liberals, Justice Party, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Parsis, Europeans, Anglo-Indians,
industry, labour, landlords, Burma, Sindh and other provinces. - Only 46 delegates in total took part in this conference.
- The INC and the Labour Party decided not to attend it. (The INC wasn’t invited).
- Indian princely states were represented by princes and divans.
- British Indians were represented by the Aga Khan (Muslims),
- Depressed classes
- women, Europeans, Anglo-Indians and labour groups.
- There was a growing demand for constitutional reforms in India by Indian leaders.
- India’s support to Britain in the First World War also aided in British acknowledgement of the need for the inclusion of more Indians in the administration of their own country.
- The Act was based on:
- Simon Commission Report
- The recommendations of the Round Table Conferences
- The White Paper published by the British government in 1933 (based on the Third Round Table Conference)
- Report of the Joint Select Committees.
- This federation was to consist of British India and the princely states.
- The provinces in British India would have to join the federation but this was not compulsory for the princely states.
- This federation never materialised because of the lack of support from the required number of princely states.
- This Act divided powers between the centre and the provinces.
- There were three lists which gave the subjects under each government.
- Federal List (Centre)
- Provincial List (Provinces)
- Concurrent List (Both)
- The Viceroy was vested with residual powers.
- The Act gave more autonomy to the provinces.
- Diarchy was abolished at the provincial levels.
- The Governor was the head of the executive.
- There was a Council of Ministers to advise him. The ministers were responsible to the provincial legislatures who controlled them. The legislature could also remove the ministers.
- However, the governors still retained special reserve powers.
- The British authorities could still suspend a provincial government.
- The subjects under the Federal List were divided into two: Reserved and Transferred.
- The reserved subjects were controlled by the Governor-General who administered them with the help of three counsellors appointed by him. They were not responsible to the legislature. These subjects included defence, ecclesiastical affairs (church-related), external affairs, press, police, taxation, justice, power resources and tribal affairs.
- The transferred subjects were administered by the Governor-General with his Council of Ministers (not more than 10). The Council had to act in confidence with the legislature. The subjects in this list included local government, forests, education, health, etc.
- However, the Governor-General had ‘special powers’ to interfere in the transferred subjects also.
- A bicameral federal legislature would be established.
- The two houses were the Federal Assembly (lower house) and the Council of States (upper house).
- The federal assembly had a term of five years.
- Both houses had representatives from the princely states also. The representatives of the princely states were to be nominated by the rulers and not elected. The representatives of British India were to be elected. Some were to be nominated by the Governor-General.
- Bicameral legislatures were introduced in some provinces also like Bengal, Madras, Bombay, Bihar, Assam and the United Provinces.
- A federal court was established at Delhi for the resolution of disputes between provinces and also between the centre and the provinces.
- It was to have 1 Chief Justice and not more than 6 judges.
- The Indian Council was abolished.
- The Secretary of State for India would instead have a team of advisors.
- This Act introduced direct elections in India for the first time.
- Sindh was carved out of Bombay Presidency.
- Bihar and Orissa were split.
- Burma was severed off from India.
- Aden was also separated from India and made into a Crown colony.
- The British Parliament retained its supremacy over the Indian legislatures both provincial and federal.
- A Federal Railway Authority was set up to control Indian railways.
- The act provided for the establishment of Reserve Bank of India.
- The Act also provided for the establishment of federal, provincial and joint Public Service Commissions.
- The Act was a milestone in the development of a responsible constitutional government in India.
- The Government of India Act 1935 was replaced by the Constitution of India after independence.
- The Indian leaders were not enthusiastic about the Act since despite granting provincial autonomy the governors and the viceroy had considerable ‘special powers’.
- Separate communal electorates were a measure through which the British wanted to ensure the Congress Party could never rule on its own. It was also a way to keep the people divided.
- Dr Ambedkar was in favour of a separate electorate for the Depressed Classes and this was laid down by him in the First Round Table Conference. He was representing the Depressed Classes in the conference.
- Gandhi was against this idea and when PM Macdonald decided to grant communal awards to minorities and the Depressed Classes, he undertook a fast whilst in jail in Poona.
- Due to public pressure to end the fast unto death, Dr Ambedkar and Gandhi made the Poona Pact which laid down reserved seats for the Depressed Classes in the provincial legislatures for which elections would be through joint electorates.
- Gandhi was against this idea because he did not want to view the untouchables as being outside the folds of Hinduism.
- Certain seats for the provincial legislatures would be reserved for the Depressed Classes. The number of seats was based on the total strength of the Provincial Councils. The number of seats reserved for the provinces was 30 for Madras, 8 for Punjab, 14 for Bombay with Sindh, 20 for the Central Provinces, 18 for Bihar and Orissa, 30 for Bengal, 7 for Assam and 20 for the United Provinces. So, in total there were 147 reserved seats.
- For each of these seats, the members of the Depressed Classes who could vote would form an electoral college. This Electoral College would elect a panel of four candidates who belong to the Depressed Classes. These candidates would be elected on the basis of a single vote. Four candidates getting the highest number of votes would be elected.
- Then these four candidates would stand in the election for the assembly along with the general candidates where the general electorate would vote. The members of the Depressed Classes hence got a ‘double vote’ since they could vote under the general electorate also.
- Even in the Central Legislature, the same principle of the joint electorate and reserved seats was to be followed.
- In the Central Legislature, 19% of the seats would be reserved for the Depressed Classes.
- This system would continue for ten years unless a mutual agreement consents to terminate it earlier.
- Fair representation of the Depressed Classes would be ensured by all means.
- Nobody would be discriminated against on the basis of caste on matters regarding election to the local bodies or in public services appointments.
- A certain sum of money from the educational grant would be allotted for the education of the Depressed Classes in all provinces.
- Japan was advancing outside the eastern borders of India and the fall of Burma was a jolt to the British in the war. The threat of a Japanese invasion on India was looming and Indian support was essential for Britain’s war efforts.
- When the 2nd World War broke out in 1939, the Viceroy Lord Linlithgow declared India a party to the war as part of the British Empire. This was done without consultation with Indians and this led to massive protests from the Congress Party. The party leaders, who were heading 7 provincial governments resigned from their posts. The Muslim League celebrated it as ‘Deliverance Day’.
- Britain was facing pressure from the US and other allied leaders over its own imperial policies in India and also to secure Indian cooperation for the Allied war effort. This also led the British government to send Cripps to India.
- Members of Cripps Mission
The Mission was headed by Stafford Cripps. Lord Privy Seal accompanied him. There were other members from the State Council including the leader of the House of Common, etc. - Britain suffered many losses in Southeast Asia and Japan’s threat to invade India seemed real for them. Hence, Britain wanted India’s support.
- Britain was pressurised by the allies (USA, USSR & China) to seek India’s cooperation.
- Indian nationalists had agreed to support the Allied as they hoped for immediate transfer of substantial power and complete independence after the war.
- Setting up of an Indian dominion. This dominion would have the freedom to remain with the British Commonwealth or to secede from it. It would also be at liberty to take part in international organisations.
- A Constituent Assembly would be formed to frame a new constitution for the country. This Assembly would have members elected by the provincial assemblies and also nominated by the princes.
- Any province unwilling to join the Indian dominion could form a separate union and have a separate constitution.
- The transfer of power and the rights of minorities would be safeguarded by negotiations between the Constituent Assembly and the British government.
- In the meantime, until this new constitution came into force, India’s defence would be controlled by the British and the powers of the Governor-General would remain unaltered.
- For the first time, the British government acknowledged India’s right to be a dominion.
- Indians could frame their own Constitution.
- The proposal of giving freedom to the provinces to be a separate union turned out to be a model for the country’s partition in 1947.
- The right to cede from the Commonwealth indicated full sovereignty at a later stage.
- In the interim period, Indians were guaranteed a good share in the administration.
- The proposals were seen as too radical by the British and as too conservative by the INC who wanted complete independence.
- The Mission was rejected by the INC, the Muslim League and other Indian groups.
- The Hindu Mahasabha and the Liberals were against the right of states to secede.
- The Depressed Classes objected because they were apprehensive about their status in a country where they will be in a minority.
- It is also believed that the mission failed because of a clear lack of support for it by the Viceroy Linlithgow, British PM Winston Churchill and the Secretary of State for India, Leo Amery.
- Subhas Chandra Bose was one of the most eminent freedom fighters of India.
- Born in Cuttack, in the province of Bengal to an affluent family. He was educated in Calcutta acquiring a degree in philosophy. Subhas Chandra Bose was Selected for the Indian Civil Services (ICS) but refused to take up service since he did not want to serve the British government.
- Bose joined the Indian National Congress (Formed on December 28, 1885) in 1921. He also started a newspaper called ‘Swaraj’.
- He was the President of the All India Youth Congress and also the Secretary of the Bengal State Congress. In 1924, he became the CEO of the Calcutta Municipal Corporation. In 1930, he became the Mayor of Calcutta.
- Bose authored the book ‘The Indian Struggle’ which covers the Indian independence movement from 1920 to 1942. The book was banned by the British government.
- He coined the term ‘Jai Hind’. His charisma and powerful personality inspired many people into the freedom struggle and continues to inspire Indians. He was called Netaji.
- Bose was sent to prison in Mandalay for nationalist activities in 1925. He was released in 1927 and became the INC’s general secretary.
- He worked with Jawaharlal Nehru (Born on November 14 – 1889) and the two became the Congress Party’s young leaders gaining popularity among the people.
- He advocated complete Swaraj and was in favour of the use of force to gain it.
- He had differences with Gandhi and he wasn’t keen on non-violence as a tool for independence.
- Bose stood for and was elected the party’s president in 1939 but was forced to resign due to differences with Gandhi’s supporters.
- Bose’s ideology tilted towards socialism and leftist authoritarianism. He formed the All India Forward Bloc in 1939 as a faction within the Congress.
- At the start of the Second World War, Bose protested against the government for not consulting Indians before dragging them into the war. He was arrested when he organised protests in Calcutta for the removal of the monument memorialising the Black Hole of Calcutta.
- He was released after a few days but was kept under surveillance. He then made his escape from the country in 1941 to Germany via Afghanistan and the Soviet Union. He had previously travelled to Europe and met with Indian students and European political leaders.
- In Germany, he met with the Nazi leaders and hoped to stage an armed struggle against the British to gain independence. He hoped to befriend the Axis powers since they were against his ‘enemy’, the British.
- He founded the Indian Legion out of about 4500 Indian soldiers who were in the British army and had been taken prisoners by the Germans from North Africa.
- In 1943, he left Germany for Japan disillusioned with the lukewarm German support for Azad Hind.
- Bose’s arrival in Japan revived the Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauj) which had been formed earlier with Japanese help.
- Azad Hind or the Provisional Government of Free India was established as a government-in-exile with Bose as the head. Its headquarters was in Singapore. The INA was its military.
- Bose motivated the troops with his fiery speeches. His famous quote is, “Give me blood, and I shall give you freedom!”
- The INA supported the Japanese army in its invasion of northeast India and also took control of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. However, they were forced to retreat by the British forces following the Battles of Kohima and Imphal in 1944.
- Bose died of third-degree burns which he suffered in a plane crash in Taiwan on 18 August 1945.
- However, many in India refused to believe that he had died.
- Many enquiry committees were tasked with finding out what happened on that day.
- The Figgess Report (1946) and the Shah Nawaz Committee (1956) concluded that Bose died in the plane crash in Taiwan.
- The Khosla Commission (1970) also concurred with the previous reports.
- But the Mukherjee Commission (2005) said that Bose’s death could not be proved. This report was rejected by the government.
- Subash Chandra Bose authored the book ‘The Indian Struggle’ which covers the Indian independence movement from 1920 to 1942. The book was banned by the British government.
- The INA supported the Japanese army in its invasion of northeast India and also took control of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. However, they were forced to retreat by the British forces following the Battles of Kohima and Imphal in 1944.
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak founded the Naujawan Bharat Sabha in 1926 to promote revolution against British rule by rallying workers and peasant youth. He was the organization’s secretary.
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak also started two important festivals (now the prime festival in Maharashtra and adjacent states). Shivaji Jayanti in 1895 and Ganesha festival in 1893.
- Popularly known as Baba Saheb. He was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly and is called the ‘Father of the Indian Constitution’.
- He was a jurist and an economist. Born into a caste that was considered untouchable, he faced many injustices and discrimination in society. He was born in Mhow in the Central Provinces (modern-day Madhya Pradesh) to a Marathi family with roots in Ambadawe town of Ratnagiri, Maharashtra.
- He was a brilliant student and had doctoral degrees in economics from Columbia University and the London School of Economics.
- Ambedkar was against the caste-based discriminations in society and advocated the Dalits to organise and demand their rights.
- He promoted the education of Dalits and made representations to the government in various capacities in this regard. He was part of the Bombay Presidency Committee that worked with the Simon Commission in 1925.
- He established the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha to promote education and socio-economic improvements among the Dalits. He started magazines like Mooknayak, Equality Janta and Bahishkrit Bharat.
- In 1927, he launched active agitation against untouchability. He organised and agitated for the right of Dalits to enter temples and to draw water from public water resources. He condemned Hindu scriptures that he thought propagated caste discrimination.
- He advocated separate electorates for the ‘Depressed Classes’, the term with which Dalits were called at that time. He was in disagreement with Mahatma Gandhi at that time since Gandhi was against any sort of reservation in the electorates. When the British government announced the ‘Communal Award’ in 1932, Gandhi went on a fast in Yerwada Jail. An agreement was signed between Gandhi and Ambedkar in the jail whereby it was agreed to give reserved seats to the depressed classes within the general electorate. This was called the Poona Pact.
- Ambedkar founded the Independent Labour Party (later transformed into the Scheduled Castes Federation) in 1936 and contested in 1937 from Bombay to the Central Legislative Assembly. He also contested from Bombay (north-central) after independence in the country’s first general elections. But he lost both times.
- He also worked as Minister of Labour in the Viceroy’s Executive Council. After independence, Ambedkar became the first Law Minister in 1947 under the Congress-led government. Later he resigned due to differences with Jawaharlal Nehru on the Hindu Code Bill.
- He was appointed to the Rajya Sabha in 1952 and remained a member till his death.
- He advocated a free economy with a stable Rupee. He also mooted birth control for economic development. He also emphasised equal rights for women.
- A few months before he died, he converted to Buddhism in a public ceremony in Nagpur and with him, lakhs of Dalits converted to Buddhism.
- He authored several books and essays. Some of them are: The Annihilation of Caste, Pakistan or the Partition of India, The Buddha and his Dhamma, The Evolution of Provincial Finance in British India, Administration and Finance of the East India Company, etc.
- Ambedkar considered the Right to Constitutional Remedy as the soul of the constitution.
- Ambedkar died of ill health in 1956 at Delhi. He was cremated according to Buddhist rites in Dadar and a memorial is constructed there. The place is called Chaitya Bhoomi. His death anniversary is observed as Mahaparinirvan Din. His birth anniversary is celebrated as Ambedkar Jayanti or Bhim Jayanti on 14 April every year.
- Also known as the India August Movement or August Kranti.
- It was officially launched by the Indian National Congress (INC) led by Mahatma Gandhi on 9 August 1942.
- The movement gave the slogans ‘Quit India’ or ‘Bharat Chodo’. Gandhi gave the slogan to the people – ‘Do or die’.
- In line with the Congress ideology, it was supposed to be a peaceful non-violent movement aimed at urging the British to grant India independence.
- The Quit India Resolution was passed by the Congress Working Committee on 8 August 1942 in Bombay. Gandhi was named the movement’s leader.
- The resolution stated the provisions of the movement as:
- An immediate end to British rule over India.
- Declaration of the commitment of free India to defend itself against all kinds of imperialism and fascism.
- Formation of a provisional government of India after British withdrawal.
- Sanctioning a civil disobedience movement against British rule.
- Gandhi’s instructions to various sections of the public:
- Government servants: do not resign your job but proclaim loyalty to the INC.
- Soldiers: be with the army but refrain from firing on compatriots.
- Peasants: pay the agreed-upon rent if the landlords/Zamindars are anti-government; if they are pro-government, do not pay the rent.
- Students: can leave studies if they are confident enough.
- Princes: support the people and accept the sovereignty of them.
- People of the princely states: support the ruler only if he is anti-government; declare themselves as part of the Indian nation.
- The Second World War had started in 1939 and Japan, which was part of the Axis Powers that were opposed to the British in the war were gaining onto the north-eastern frontiers of India.
- The British had abandoned their territories in South-East Asia and had left their population in the lurch. This act did not garner much faith among the Indian population who had doubts about the British ability to defend India against Axis aggression.
- Gandhi also believed that if the British left India, Japan would not have enough reason to invade India.
- Apart from hearing news about British setbacks in the war, the war-time difficulties such as high prices of essential commodities fostered resentment against the British government.
- The failure of the Cripps Mission to guarantee any kind of a constitutional remedy to India’s problems also led to the INC calling for a mass civil disobedience movement.
- The British government responded to the call of Gandhi by arresting all major Congress leaders the very next day. Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, etc. were all arrested. This left the movement in the hands of the younger leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan and Ram Manohar Lohia. New leaders like Aruna Asaf Ali emerged out of the vacuum of leadership.
- Over 100000 people were arrested in connection with this movement. The government resorted to violence in order to quell the agitation. They were mass floggings and lathi charges. Even women and children were not spared. About 10000 people died in police firing in total.
- There was no communal violence.
- The INC was banned. Its leaders were jailed for almost the whole of the war. Gandhi was released on health grounds in 1944.
- The people responded to Gandhi’s call in a major way. However, in the absence of leadership, there were stray incidences of violence and damage to government property. Many buildings were set on fire, electricity lines were cut and communication and transport lines were broken.
- Some parties did not support the movement. There was opposition from the Muslim League, the Communist Party of India (the government revoked the ban on the party then) and the Hindu Mahasabha.
- The League was not in favour of the British leaving India without partitioning the country first. In fact, Jinnah asked more Muslims to enlist in the army to fight the war.
- The Communist party supported the war waged by the British since they were allied with the Soviet Union.
- Subhas Chandra Bose, was by this time, organizing the Indian National Army and the Azad Hind government from outside the country.
- C Rajagopalachari, resigned from the INC since he was not in favour of complete independence.
- In general, the Indian bureaucracy did not support the Quit India Movement.
- There were strikes and demonstrations all over the country. Despite the communist group’s lack of support to the movement, workers provided support by not working in the factories.
- In some places, parallel governments were also set up. Example: Ballia, Tamluk, Satara.
- The chief areas of the movement were UP Bihar, Maharashtra, Midnapore, and Karnataka. The movement lasted till 1944.
- Despite heavy-handed suppression by the government, the people were unfazed and continued their struggle.
- Even though the government said that independence could be granted only after the end of the war, the movement drove home the point that India could not be governed without the support of the Indians.
- The movement placed the demand for complete independence at the top agenda of the freedom movement.
- Public morale and anti-British sentiment were enhanced.
- Bill of Rights
- Assigning Equal rights to men and women as citizens
- Formation of a federal form of government with residuary powers in the hands of Centre
- Proposal for the creation of Supreme Court
- When the Simon Commission came to India in 1928, it was vehemently opposed by Indians especially the Congress Party for the lack of a single Indian in the Commission.
- So, the Secretary of State for India, Lord Birkenhead challenged the Indian leaders to draft a constitution for India, implicitly implying that Indians were not capable of finding a common path and drafting a constitution.
- The political leaders accepted this challenge and an All Party Conference was held and a committee appointed with the task of drafting a constitution.
- This committee was headed by Motilal Nehru with Jawaharlal Nehru as the Secretary. Other members were Ali Imam, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Mangal Singh, M S Aney, Subhas Chandra Bose, Shuaib Qureshi and G R Pradhan.
- The draft constitution prepared by the committee was called the Nehru Committee Report or Nehru Report. The report was submitted at the Lucknow session of the all-party conference on August 28, 1928.
- This was the first major attempt by Indians to draft a constitution for themselves.
- Dominion status for India (like Canada, Australia, etc.) within the British Commonwealth. (This point was a bone of contention with the younger set of leaders including Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose who favoured complete independence.)
- Nineteen fundamental rights including the right to vote for men and women above 21 years of age, unless disqualified.
- Equal rights for men and women as citizens.
- No state religion.
- No separate electorates for any community. It did provide for reservation of minority seats. It provided for reservation for seats for Muslims at the centre and in provinces where they were in a minority and not in Bengal and Punjab. Similarly, it provided for reservation for non-Muslims in the NWFP.
- A federal form of government with residual powers with the centre. There would be a bicameral legislature at the centre. The ministry would be responsible to the legislature.
- Governor-General to be the constitutional head of India. He would be appointed by the British monarch.
- A proposal for the creation of a Supreme Court.
- The provinces would be created along linguistic lines.
- The language of the country would be Indian, written either in Devanagari (Sanskrit/Hindi), Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, Bengali, Marathi or Gujarati in character. Usage of English to be permitted.
- The issue of communal representation was controversial. In December 1927, many Muslim leaders met Motilal Nehru at Delhi and suggested a few proposals. These were accepted by Congress at its Madras session. These ‘Delhi Proposals’ were:
- 1/3rd representation of Muslims in the Central Legislature.
- Representation to Muslims in Punjab and Bengal in proportion to their populations.
- Formation of three new provinces with a Muslim majority – Sindh, Baluchistan and North-West Frontier Province (NWFP).
- However, the Hindu Mahasabha was opposed to the formation of the new provinces and the communal representation in Bengal and Punjab. They pressed for a strictly unitary system.
- The report made concessions to the Hindu group by stating that joint electorates would be the system followed with reservation of seats for Muslims only where they were in a minority. Sindh would be created into a new province (by severing from Bombay) only after dominion status was granted and weightage would be given to the Hindu minority there.
- At the all-party conference held in Calcutta in 1928 to discuss the report, Jinnah made three amendments to the report:
- 1/3rd representation of Muslims in the Central Legislature.
- Reservation to Muslims in Punjab and Bengal in proportion to their populations until adult suffrage was established.
- Residual powers to be vested with the provinces and not the centre.
- Since these demands of Jinnah were not met, he gave the ‘Fourteen Points’ in March 1929, which served as the basis of all future agenda of the League.
- Federal constitution with residual powers with the provinces.
- Provincial autonomy.
- No constitutional amendment without the agreement of the states.
- All legislatures and elected bodies to have adequate Muslim representation without reducing Muslim majority in a province to minority or equality.
- Adequate Muslim representation of Muslims in the services and in self-governing bodies.
- 1/3rd representation of Muslims in the Central Legislature.
- 1/3rd Muslim members in the central and state cabinets.
- Separate electorates.
- No bill to be passed in any legislature if 3/4th of a minority community considers it against its interests.
- Any reorganisation of territories not to affect the Muslim majority in Bengal, Punjab and the NWFP.
- Separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency.
- Constitutional reforms in the NWFP and Baluchistan.
- Full religion freedom for all communities.
- Protection of the religious, cultural, educational and language rights of Muslims.
- During the Second World War, the British government, under the viceroyalty of Lord Linlithgow had said that any move towards an Indian statehood would be possible only if the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League resolve their differences.
- The League was increasingly demanding a separate nation of Pakistan for the Muslims whereas the INC was against the partitioning of the country.
- To break this deadlock between the two major political parties in India, C Rajagopalachari, INC member who was close to Mahatma Gandhi, proposed a set of plans called the C R Formula or Rajaji Formula.
- This was the first acknowledgement by a Congressman about the inevitability of the partition of the country and a tacit acceptance of Pakistan.
- The Muslim League would join hands with the INC to demand independence from the British.
- Both parties would cooperate and form a provisional government at the centre.
- After the war, a commission would be entrusted with the task of demarcating those areas with an absolute majority of Muslims and a plebiscite to be held in those areas where all the inhabitants (Muslims and non-Muslims) would vote based on adult suffrage whether to form a separate sovereign nation or not.
- In case of partition, joint agreements to be made for the safeguarding of defence, communications and commerce.
- The above terms to come to fruition only if Britain transfers full powers to India.
- In 1944, Gandhi and M A Jinnah held talks on the basis of the Rajaji Formula.
- The talks were a failure as Jinnah had objections to the proposal.
- Jinnah’s objections:
- He wanted the INC to accept the Two-Nation Theory.
- He did not want the entire population of the Muslim majority areas to vote on the plebiscite, but only the Muslim population in those areas.
- He was also against the idea of a common centre. Also, Jinnah wanted separate dominions to be created before the English left India.
- The Sikhs also looked upon the formula unfavourably because the formula meant a division of Punjab. Although the Sikhs were a big chunk of the population, there were not in the majority in any of the district.
- V D Savarkar and Shyama Prasad Mukherjee of the Hindu Mahasabha and Srinivas Sastri of the National Liberal Federation were also against the C R Formula.
- The INC, which was hitherto opposed to the partition of the country was willing to give some concessions to get the League on board for talks for independence, but the League was more interested in Pakistan than freedom.
- During the Second World War, the Indian National Congress (INC) leaders were upset with the British government for having pulled India into a war without the consent of Indians. Lord Linlithgow had declared India to be at war with Germany without consultation.
- France had fallen to the Axis Powers and the Allies were suffering many reverses in the war. There was also a change of government in Britain and Winston Churchill became the British Prime Minister in 1940.
- The British government were keen to get Indian support for the war. Britain herself was in danger of being occupied by the Nazis and in this light, the INC softened its stand. It said that support for the war would be provided if power was transferred to an interim government in India.
- Then, the Viceroy Linlithgow made a set of proposals called the ‘August offer’. For the first time, the right of Indians to frame their own constitution was acknowledged.
- A representative Indian body would be framed after the war to frame a constitution for India. Dominion status was the objective for India.
- The Viceroy’s Executive Council would be expanded right away to include for the first time more Indians than whites. However, defence, finance and home portfolios were to remain with the British.
- An advisory war council was to be established.
- An assurance was given to the minorities that no transfer of power would take place “to any system of government whose authority is directly denied by large and powerful elements in Indian national life.”
- The INC rejected this offer at its meeting at Wardha in August 1940. It demanded complete freedom from colonial rule. Jawaharlal Nehru remarked that the dominion status concept was as dead as a doornail.
- The League also rejected the offer saying that nothing short of partitioning the country would be acceptable to them.
- After this, Mahatma Gandhi initiated the Individual Satyagraha to affirm the right to free speech. He avoided a mass satyagraha because he did not want violence.
- The first three satyagrahis were Vinoba Bhave, Nehru and Brahma Datt. All three were jailed.
- The satyagrahis also started a march towards Delhi which was called the ‘Delhi Chalo Movement’.
- The movement failed to pick up steam and was aborted in December 1940.
- After the failure of the August Offer, the British government sent the Cripps Mission to India in a bid to garner Indian support for the war.
- The Viceroy’s Executive Council was to have all Indian members except the Viceroy himself and the Commander-in-Chief.
- The council was to have a ‘balanced representation’ of all Indians including ‘caste-Hindus’, Muslims, Depressed Classes, Sikhs, etc. Muslims were given 6 out of 14 members which accounted for more than their share of the population (25%).
- The Viceroy/Governor-General would still have the power of veto but its use would be minimal.
- The foreign affairs portfolio would be transferred from the Governor-General to an Indian member. The defence would be handled by a British general until the full transfer of power was made.
- A conference would be convened by the Viceroy to get a list of all the members recommended to the Council from all parties concerned. In case a joint list was not agreed upon, separate lists would be taken from the parties. This was to be the Shimla Conference.
- If this plan worked, similar councils would be formed in all provinces comprising of local leaders.
- The conference was a failure because the League and the Congress could not settle their differences.
- Jinnah insisted that only League members could be the Muslim representatives in the Council, and opposed to the Congress nominating Muslim members. This was because Jinnah wanted the League to be the sole representative of Muslims in India. Congress would never agree to this demand.
- In the Wavell Plan, there were 6 Muslim representatives out of 14 members, which was more than the Muslim share of the population. Despite this, the League wanted the power of veto to any constitutional proposal which it believed was not in its interest. Congress opposed this unreasonable demand also.
- Jinnah refused to give the names to the council unless the government acknowledged that only the Muslim League was the exclusive representative of Indian Muslims.
- The Wavell Plan, thus, was dissolved with the failure of the conference. And with it the last chance to avoid partition.
- After this, the war ended and a new Labour government was elected in Britain. This new government was intent on giving independence to India without much delay and sent the Cabinet Mission with that purpose.
- To obtain an agreement with the Indian leaders as to the framing of a constitution for India.
- To formulate a constitution-making body (the Constituent Assembly of India).
- To establish an Executive Council with the support of the major Indian parties.
- The Congress Party wanted a strong centre with minimum powers for the provinces.
- The Muslim League wanted strong political safeguards for the Muslims like parity in the legislatures.
- Since both parties had many ideological differences and could not find common ground, the mission came up with its own set of proposals in May 1946.
- The Dominion of India would be granted independence, without any partition.
- The provinces would be divided into three groups/sections:
- Group A: Madras, Central Provinces, UP, Bihar, Bombay and Orissa
- Group B: Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and Baluchistan
- Group C: Bengal and Assam
- The Muslim-majority provinces were grouped into two groups and the remaining Hindu-majority in one of the groups.
- The central government at Delhi would have powers over the defence, foreign affairs, communications and currency. The rest of the powers would be vested with the provinces.
- A constituent assembly would be set up for writing a new constitution for the country. An interim government would be established until a new government was formed on the basis of the constitution written by the constituent assembly.
- The Congress was not keen on the idea of the groupings of provinces on the basis of Hindu-Muslim majority and vying for control at the centre. It was also against the idea of a weak centre. The Muslim League did not want any changes to the proposals.
- Since the plan was not accepted, a new plan was proposed by the mission in June 1946. This plan proposed the division of India into a Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority India later to be renamed Pakistan. A list of princely states was also made that could either join the union or remain independent.
- The Congress Party under Jawaharlal Nehru did not accept the second plan. Instead, it agreed to be part of the constituent assembly.
- The Viceroy invited 14 men to form the interim government. There were 5 from the Congress, 5 from the League, 1 member each representing the Sikh, Parsee, Indian Christian and scheduled caste communities.
- Both the League and the Congress were given the right to nominate 5 members to the Viceroy’s interim council. The Congress nominated Zakir Hussain as one of the members to which the League objected saying only it represented Indian Muslims and no other party. The Muslim League did not take part in it.
- The Congress leaders entered the viceroy’s interim council and thus Nehru headed the interim government. The new government began the task of framing a constitution for the country.
- Congress-led governments were formed in most provinces including the NWFP. In Bengal and Sind, the League formed the governments.
- Jinnah and the League objected to the new central government. He geared to agitate for Pakistan and urged Muslims to demand Pakistan by any means. He called for ‘Direct Action Day’ on 16 August 1946.
- This call led to widespread communal rioting in the country with 5000 people being killed on the first day in Calcutta. Communal riots spread to many other areas notably Noakhali and Bihar.
- There was a call for the partitioning of the country on account of the riots. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was one of the first Congress leaders to acknowledge the inevitability of the partition as a means to stop the brutal violence.
- Regulating Act 1773
- Pitt’s India Act 1784
- Charter Act of 1813
- Charter Act of 1833
- Charter Act of 1853
- Government of India Act 1858
- Indian Councils Act 1861
- India Councils Act 1892
- Morley-Minto Reforms 1909
- Montague-Chelmsford Reforms 1919
- Government of India Act 1935
- Indian Independence Act 1947
- First time the British Parliament resorted to regulating the affairs of the East India Company.
- The Governor of Bengal was made the Governor-General of Bengal (Warren Hastings).
- An Executive Council of the Governor-General was created with 4 members.
- Centralised the administration with the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay being made subordinate to the Bengal Presidency.
- Supreme Court was established at Calcutta as the Apex Court in 1774.
- Prohibited company officials from engaging in private trade and from accepting gifts from Indians.
- Commercial and political functions of the company separated. The Court of Directors managed the commercial activities while the Board of Control managed political affairs.
- The company territories in India were called ‘British possession in India’.
- Governor’s Councils were set up in Madras and Bombay as well.
- This act ended the East India Company’s monopoly over trade with India except in tea and opium. Trade with India was open to all British subjects.
- Governor-General of Bengal was designated the Governor-General of India (Lord William Bentinck).
- The legislative powers of the Bombay and Madras Presidencies were removed.
- This act ended the commercial activities of the company and it was transformed into an administrative body.
- The legislative and executive powers of the Governor-General’s Council were separated.
- A Central Legislative Council was created of 6 members out of which 4 were appointed by the provisional governments of Madras, Bombay, Agra and Bengal.
- The Indian civil service was opened as a means to recruit officers for administration through open competition.
- After the 1857 revolt, the rule of the company was ended and the British possessions in India came directly under the British Crown.
- The office of the Secretary of State for India was created. He was assisted by a 15-member Council of India.
- The Indian administration was under his authority and the Viceroy was his agent. The Governor-General was designated the Viceroy as well (Lord Canning).
- The Court of Directors and the Board of Control were abolished.
- Indians were given representation in the Viceroy’s Councils. 3 Indians entered the Legislative Council.
- Provisions were made for the entry of Indians in the Viceroy’s Executive council also as non-official members.
- Portfolio system was recognised.
- Decentralisation initiated with the presidencies of Madras and Bombay being restored their legislative powers.
- Indirect elections (nominations) were introduced.
- Legislative Councils expanded. Gave more functions to the legislative councils such as the discussion of budget and questioning the executive.
- Direct elections to the legislative councils were introduced for the first time.
- Central Legislative Council became the Imperial Legislative Council.
- The number of members of the legislative council was increased from 16 to 60.
- The concept of the separate communal electorate was accepted.
- For the first time, an Indian was made a member of the Viceroy’s Executive Council. (Satyendra Prasad Sinha – Law Member).
- Central and provincial subjects were separated.
- Diarchy was introduced in the provincial governments with executive councillors being in charge of the reserved list and the ministers in charge of the transferred list of subjects.
- The ministers were nominated from among the elected members of the legislative council and were responsible to the legislature.
- A bicameral legislature was introduced for the first time at the centre. (Legislative council and legislative assembly later to become Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha respectively).
- It mandated 3 members of the Viceroy’s executive council to be Indians.
- This act provided for the first time, the establishment of a public service commission in India.
- This act extended the right to vote and with this, about 10% of the population acquired voting rights.
- An all-India Federation was proposed which would consist of British India and the princely states. This never materialised though.
- Subjects were divided between the centre and the provinces. Centre was in charge of the Federal List, provinces in charge of the Provincial List and there was a Concurrent List which both catered to.
- Diarchy was abolished at the provincial level and introduced at the centre.
- More autonomy was accorded to the provinces and in 6 out of 11 provinces, the bicameral legislature was introduced.
- A federal court was established and the Indian Council abolished.
- Burma and Aden were severed off from India.
- This act provided for the establishment of the RBI.
- This Act continued until it was replaced by the new Indian Constitution.
- India was declared independent and sovereign.
- The Viceroy and the Governors were made constitutional (nominal) heads.
- Set up responsible governments at the centre and the provinces.
- Assigned both legislative and executive powers to the Constituent Assembly of India.
- In 1934, M N Roy first proposed the idea of a constituent assembly.
- The demand was taken up by the Congress Party in 1935 as an official demand
- The British accepted this in the August Offer of 1940
- Under the Cabinet Mission plan of 1946, elections were held for the formation of the constituent assembly
- The members of this assembly were elected indirectly, i.e., by the members of the provincial assemblies by the method of a single transferable vote of proportional representation
- The constituent assembly was formed for the purpose of writing a constitution for independent India
- Initially, the number of members was 389. After partition, some of the members went to Pakistan and the number came down to 299. Out of this, 229 were from the British provinces and 70 were nominated from the princely states.
- Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was the first temporary chairman of the Constituent Assembly. Later, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President and its Vice President was Harendra Coomar Mookerjee. BN Rau was the constitutional advisor.
- Fundamental Rights Sub-Committee: Acharya Kripalani
- Minorities Sub-Committee: H C Mookerjee
- Excluded and Partially Excluded Areas (Other than those in Assam) Sub-Committee: A V Thakkar
- North-East Frontier Tribal Areas and Assam Excluded & Partially Excluded Areas Sub-Committee: Gopinath Bardoloi
- It was not a representative body since the members were not directly elected by adult franchise. However, the leaders did enjoy popular support from the people. Direct elections by the universal adult franchise at that time when the country was on the brink of partition and amidst communal riots would have been impractical.
- It is said that the makers took a long time in framing the constitution. However, keeping in mind the complexity and the peculiarities of the diverse and large Indian nation, this can be understood.
- The constituent assembly was not a sovereign body since it was created by the British. However, it worked as a fully independent and sovereign body.
- The language of the constitution was criticised for being literary and complicated.
- The assembly was dominated by the Congress Party. But the party dominated the provincial assemblies and this was natural. Moreover, it was a heterogeneous party with members from almost all sections of Indian society.
- It was alleged that the assembly had Hindu dominance. This was again because of proportional representation from communities.
- Lord Mountbatten came to India as the last Viceroy and was assigned the task of a speedy transfer of power by the then British Prime Minister Clement Atlee.
- In May 1947, Mountbatten came up with a plan under which he proposed that the provinces be declared independent successor states and then be allowed to choose whether to join the constituent assembly or not. This plan was called the ‘Dickie Bird Plan’.
- Jawaharlal Nehru (Born on November 14, 1889) when apprised of the plan, vehemently opposed it saying it would lead to Balkanisation of the country. Hence, this plan was also called Plan Balkan.
- Then, the viceroy came up with another plan called the June 3 Plan. This plan was the last plan for Indian independence. It is also called the Mountbatten Plan.
- The June 3 Plan included the principles of partition, autonomy, sovereignty to both nations, right to make their own constitution.
- Above all, the Princely States such as Jammu and Kashmir were given a choice to either join India or Pakistan. The consequences of these choices would affect the new nations for decades to come.
- This plan was accepted by both the Congress and the Muslim League. By then, the Congress had also accepted the inevitability of the partition.
- This plan was put into action by the Indian Independence Act 1947 which was passed in the British Parliament and received the royal assent on 18 July 1947.
- British India was to be partitioned into two dominions – India and Pakistan.
- The constitution framed by the Constituent Assembly would not be applicable to the Muslim-majority areas (as these would become Pakistan). The question of a separate constituent assembly for the Muslim-majority areas would be decided by these provinces.
- As per the plan, the legislative assemblies of Bengal and Punjab met and voted for the partition. Accordingly, it was decided to partition these two provinces along religious lines.
- The legislative assembly of Sind would decide whether to join the Indian constituent assembly or not. It decided to go to Pakistan.
- A referendum was to be held on NWFP (North-Western Frontier Province) to decide which dominion to join. NWFP decided to join Pakistan while Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan boycotted and rejected the referendum.
- The date for the transfer of power was to be August 15, 1947.
- To fix the international boundaries between the two countries, the Boundary Commission was established chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe. The commission was to demarcate Bengal and Punjab into the two new countries.
- The princely states were given the choice to either remain independent or accede to India or Pakistan. The British suzerainty over these kingdoms was terminated.
- The British monarch would no longer use the title ‘Emperor of India’.
- After the dominions were created, the British Parliament could not enact any law in the territories of the new dominions.
- Until the time the new constitutions came into existence, the Governor-General would assent any law passed by the constituent assemblies of the dominions in His Majesty’s name. The Governor-General was made a constitutional head.
- Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, also known as Bacha Khan, was a Pashtun independence activist who campaigned to end the rule of the British Raj in India. He was nicknamed as Frontier Gandhi.
- Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan worked towards the formation of a united, independent, secular India. To achieve this end, he founded the Khudai Khidmatgar (“Servants of God”), commonly known as the “Red Shirts” (Surkh Pōsh), during the 1920s.
- The Banu Resolution stated that the Pashtuns should be given a choice to have an independent state of Pashtunistan composing all Pashtun territories of British India, instead of being made to join either India or Pakistan.
- India’s response to the First World War was seen in the Home Rule Movement. It was an effective way to show discontent in British rule. There were two Indian Home Rule Leagues that were organised on the lines of the Irish Home Rule Leagues.
- In India’s struggle for Independence, the Non-Cooperation movement is one of the important movements. On August 31, 1920, the Khilafat Committee started a campaign of non-cooperation and the movement was formally launched. The aim was to boycott major social programmes, events, offices and schools to resonate with India’s struggle for independence.
- Abolished doctrine of lapse
- Wahabi Movement
- Establishment of High court in Calcutta, Madras during his reign.
- Anglo-Bhutanese war
- Financial Distribution between centre and state introduced for the first time
- First Census in 1872
- Mayo College for the royal elite was set up
- Lord Mayo was the only Governor-General who was killed in India. He was killed by Sher Ali Afridi in Port Blair
- Establishment of Statistical Survey of India
- Civil Marriage and Arya Samaj marriage introduced
- Universal Marriage Act introduced in 1872
- Intercaste Marriage allowed
- Kuka Movement in Punjab
- Vernacular Press Act, 1878
- Arms Act, 1878
- Nationalist view – Due to High rate of taxation purchasing power had reduced.
- Government view – Drought is natural phenomena due to which people became poor
- Ignored severe famine and organized durbar. Proclaimed Queen Victoria “The Empress of India”
- Abolished tax on cotton for British traders
- Maximum age to take up civil services exam lowered from 21 to 19
- Was the most loved Governor-General
- Repealed the controversial Arms and Vernacular press act
- Set up Local self-governments – Panchayats and Municipal Boards due to which he was known as Father of Self Government
- 2 new universities opened – Punjab University 1884, Allahabad University 1887
- Illbert Bill – Indian judge cannot try English Judge
- Appointment of Hunter Commission
- III Anglo-‐Burmese war (1885-‐1886)
- Indian National Congress was founded in 1885
- Indian Councils Act, 1892 (Indirect election was introduced for the first time)
- Factory Act, 1891
- First British Officer called Rands was killed.
- He was killed by Chapekar (Ramkrishna & Damodar) Brothers. This was the first political murder.
- Indian Universities act – to control Indian Universities
- Raleigh Commission
- Partition of Bengal
- Curzon-Kitchener controversy
- Morley – Minto reforms
- Mesopotamian Campaign
- Transfer of Capital from Calcutta to Delhi
- Hindu Mahasabha was established by Madan Mohan Malaviya
- Home Rule League Movements
- Rowlatt Act was passed
- Montague – Chelmsford reform was passed
- Swaraj Party was formed
- Chauri – Chaura incident took place
- Launch of civil disobedience movement and Dandi march
- First round table conference was held
- Second & Third Round Table Conference
- Poona pact was signed
- Communal award was started
- Cripps Mission
- Quit India movement
- CR Formula 1944
- Launch of Direct Action day
- Wavell Plan & Shimla conference
- June 3rd Plan
- Last Viceroy and First Governor-General of free India
- Singh’s family members were involved in the freedom struggle and he was drawn towards the Indian independence movement from a very young age.
- As a child, he defied the British government by burning textbooks recommended by it.
- Initially, he supported Mahatma Gandhi and the Non-Cooperation Movement.
- However, when Gandhi withdrew the movement in the wake of the Chauri Chaura incident, Bhagat Singh turned to revolutionary nationalism.
- He was particularly affected by the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919) and the violence against unarmed Akali protestors at Nankana Sahib (1921).
- Inspired by leftist writings he read widely, Singh was an atheist and against capitalism.
- In 1926, he founded the Naujawan Bharat Sabha.
- This organisation aimed to encourage revolution against British rule by rallying the peasants and workers.
- Singh served as the organisation’s secretary.
- In 1928, he established the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) along with Sukhdev, Chandrashekhar Azad and others.
- Lala Lajpat Rai died in 1928 as a result of injuries sustained in a police lathi charge on the orders of a Superintendent of Police, James Scott.
- Bhagat Singh and his revolutionary friends decided to avenge the death of the dear leader.
- However, in a case of mistaken identity, they assassinated another police official J P Saunders.
- This was part of the Lahore Conspiracy Case.
- After this incident, Singh fled from Lahore and made changes to his appearance.
- Bhagat Singh was also involved in this case.
- On 8th April 1929, Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Assembly at Delhi, from the Visitors’ Gallery.
- They also threw pamphlets and raised pro-revolutionary slogans.
- Both the revolutionaries courted arrest since they wanted to spread their message of revolution and anti-imperialism, and needed a platform for it.
- Nobody was hurt in the incident, and it was never their intention to cause physical harm to anyone.
- Their stated aim was ‘to make the deaf hear’.
- Bhagat Singh was the mastermind behind the incident, and he was inspired by Auguste Vaillant, a French anarchist, who was executed by France for a similar incident in Paris.
- In the trial that ensued, both Singh and Dutt were sentenced to transportation for life.
- For more on the Central Assembly Bombing Case, check This Day in History dated 8th April.
- In the meanwhile, the murder case of J P Saunders also came up and Singh was linked to that case as well.
- This trial commenced in July 1929.
- In the Lahore prison where they were lodged, the young leaders started a hunger strike demanding better treatment as they were supposed to be political prisoners.
- They were met by many leaders including Jawaharlal Nehru, who expressed pain on seeing their distress.
- Bhagat Singh fasted for 116 days after which he ended it at the request of his father and Congress leaders.
- The trial, needless to say, was one-sided and Singh, along with Rajguru and Sukhdev were sentenced to death.
- The trial and the subsequent sentence drew widespread condemnation from many quarters.
- Many national leaders requested a reduced sentence but to no avail.
- The trio was ordered to be hanged on 24 March 1931 but the sentence was carried out a day earlier at the Lahore Jail. After the hanging, their mortal remains were cremated in secret.
- It is said that Singh cried ‘Down with British imperialism’ as he was hanged.
- This execution evoked strong reactions from the Indian people, particularly youngsters, and many were motivated to join the freedom struggle.
- 23rd March is observed as ‘Martyrs’ Day’ or ‘Shaheed Diwas’ or ‘Sarvodaya Day’ in honour of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev.
- They may kill me but they cannot kill my ideas. They can crush my body, but they will not be able to crush my spirit.
- Bombs and pistols do not make a revolution. The sword of revolution is sharpened on the whetting stone of ideas.
- May the sun in his course visit no land freer, happier, more lovely, than this our own country.
- But mere faith and blind faith is dangerous: it dulls the brain and makes a man reactionary.
- Revolution is an inalienable right of mankind. Freedom is an imperishable birthright of all. Labour is the real sustainer of society.
Anglo-Mysore War – Who was Hyder Ali?
The introduction to Hyder Ali is given in points below:
First Anglo-Mysore War
The key-facts about the first Anglo-Mysore war are given in the table below:
First Anglo-Mysore War |
Causes of the War: |
Course of the War: |
Result of the War: |
Learn about the Battle of Chengam that was a part of First Anglo-Mysore War and was fought on 3rd September 1767.
Second Anglo-Mysore War
The key-facts about the second Anglo-Mysore war are given in the table below:
Second Anglo-Mysore War |
Causes of the War: |
Course of the War: |
Result of the War: |
Also, read about the battles which were a part of the Second Anglo-Mysore War:
The Anglo-Mysore Wars were a series of four wars between the British and the Kingdom of Mysore in the latter half of the 18th century in Southern India.
Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790 – 1792)
Causes of the war:
The course of the war:
Result of the war:
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)
Causes of the war:
The course of the war:
Result of the war:
Warren Hastings was the 1st Governor-General of Bengal. This article will share details about Warren Hastings and measures taken by him during his tenure; such as revenue reforms, judicial reforms, the abolition of dual system etc. This is part of the Modern Indian History, which forms an important component of UPSC Civil Service Exam.
Warren Hastings – Brief Introduction
Abolition of the Dual System
Revenue Reforms
Judicial Reforms
Trade Regulations
Zamindari System & All India Kisan Sabha
Lord Cornwallis introduced the Zamindari System under his Permanent Settlement Act. The three major components of the Zamindari System were – British, Zamindar (Landlord) and peasants. Known as one of the major land revenue systems, Zamindari System is important for the Modern History preparation of the
Quick Facts about Zamindari System for UPSC
The table below mentions the relevant facts about the Zamindari System for the preparation of the Modern History subject:
Important Facts about Zamindari System for IAS |
|
Who introduced the Zamindari System? |
Lord Cornwallis who was governor-general of India from 1786-1793, had introduced Zamindari System under his Permanent Settlement Act |
Why was the Zamindari System abolished? |
With the introduction of the land revenue systems during the British Rule, there was a birth of intermediaries like Zamindars, Mahalwars, Ryotwars, etc. These groups of people were hampering the cultivators and hence, the initiative to abolish the Zamindari System was taken. |
What are the main aspects of the Zamindari System? |
|
How was the Zamindari System under British Rule different from that under Mughal Era? |
|
Zamindari System – Major Events
The system recognised the zamindars as landowners who then let out their lands to tenant farmers in return of a share of the produce. The zamindar, in turn, had to pay a fixed sum to the British Government. This led to a lot of exploitation of the peasants.
Issues related to peasants were an important part of the freedom movement from the first decade of the twentieth century. One of the issues that the national movement focussed on after 1915 was the condition of the peasantry and their upliftment. As a result, the abolition of intermediaries and by extension the zamindari system increased in importance. Here are a few important events related to reforming the land revenue system during the early twentieth century:
These were some of the important steps taken towards the abolition of zamindari during the early phase of the freedom movement.
End of the Zamindari System
The zamindari system was finally abolished by law after independence. In 1951, the first amendment of the Constitution of India amended Article 19 and Article 31. The right to property was modified to allow the states to legislate on ending the zamindari system.
The land revenue systems of British India were an important focus of the freedom movement. In many cases, immediate triggers to various agitations as described in the preceding paragraphs. IAS aspirants should study these systems and the present land revenue system in India. They should also study the impact of land revenue systems on the people. This would enhance preparation for the history as well as economy syllabi of the UPSC 2021.
Permanent Settlement
This article will talk about the Permanent Settlement of Bengal, Lord Cornwallis and the Zamindari System introduced by him.
The Permanent Settlement of Bengal was brought into effect by the East India Company headed by the Governor-General Lord Cornwallis in 1793. This was basically an agreement between the company and the Zamindars to fix the land revenue. First enacted in Bengal, Bihar and Odisha, this was later followed in northern Madras Presidency and the district of Varanasi. Cornwallis thought of this system inspired by the prevailing system of land revenue in England where the landlords were the permanent masters of their holdings and they collected revenue from the peasants and looked after their interests. He envisaged the creation of a hereditary class of landlords in India. This system was also called the Zamindari System.
This is an important topic for IAS Exam and the aspirants are advised to read the relevant facts about the Permanent Settlement under GS-I section of UPSC Syllabus. Candidates can also download the notes PDF from the link given below.
Permanent Settlement – Background
Features of the Permanent Settlement
Merits of the Permanent Settlement
Demerits of the Permanent Settlement
List of Governors-General of India,
First Governor-General of Bengal & Viceroy
This article will abreast you with all the relevant information about the first Governor-General of Bengal, various Governors-General of India, their achievements, and the major reforms that took place during their tenure as the Governors-General or viceroys of India. This topic is covered in the general awareness section of most of the competitive exams including the IAS Exam.
Governor-General of India & Important Events
The first Governor-General of Bengal was Warren Hastings with tenure of office from 1772-1785. Warren Hastings was an English statesman, the head of the Supreme Council of Bengal. He brought an end to the Dual Government system by enforcing the Regulating Act of 1773. He founded the Calcutta Madrasa for the promotion of Islamic studies, and the Asiatic Society of Bengal with William Jones in the year 1781 and 1784 respectively. Hastings was also elected as a fellow of the Royal Society in 1801.
Charter Act of 1833 made Governor-General of Bengal as Governor-General of British India. And, William Bentick was the first Governor-General of British India.
More such information on different Viceroys and Governor-General Of India along with the major reforms brought by them are given below in the form of a list.
List of Governors-General of Bengal
Year |
Governors-General of Bengal |
Major Reforms & Events |
1772-1785 |
Warren Hastings |
First Governor of Bengal |
1786-1793 |
Lord Cornwallis |
Establishment of Appellate courts and lower grade courts |
1793-1798 |
Sir John Shore |
Charter act of 1793 |
1798-1805 |
Lord Wellesley |
Introduction of Subsidiary Alliance System |
1805-1807 |
Sir George Barlow |
The Acting Governor-General of India until the arrival of Lord Minto, |
1807-1813 |
Lord Minto I |
Concluded the treaty of Amritsar with Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1809, |
1813-1823 |
Lord Hastings |
The policy of Non-intervention came to an end |
1823-1828 |
Lord Amherst |
The annexation of Assam leading to the first Burmese war of 1824, |
Governors-General of India
Year |
Governors-General of India |
Major Reforms |
1828-1835 |
Lord William Bentinck |
First Governor-General of India (Charter Act of 1833 made Governor-General of Bengal as Governor-General of India.) |
1835-1836 |
Lord Charles Metcalfe |
‘Liberator of the Indian press |
1836-1842 |
Lord Auckland |
Dedicated himself to the improvement of native schools and the expansion of the commercial industry of India |
1842-1844 |
Lord Ellenborough |
Sindh was annexed |
1844-1848 |
Lord Hardinge I |
First Anglo Sikh War (1845-46) |
Lord Dalhousie (Governors-General of India) |
introduced ‘Doctrine of Lapse‘ |
|
1856-1857 |
Lord Canning |
Three universities at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in 1857 were established |
Note: Aspirants should know about the only Indian Governor-General of India who was CR Gopalachari. India was made a republic in 1950. He was the last governor-general of India, following which the post was abolished.
Pitt ' s India Act 1784 - Features & Drawbacks
The Pitt’s India Act, 1784 also called the East India Company Act, 1784 was passed by the British Parliament to correct the defects of the Regulating Act of 1773. This act resulted in dual control of British possessions in India by the British government and the Company with the final authority resting with the government. This act continued in effect until 1858. This topic is very important for Civil Services Exam
The act is named after William Pitt the Younger, Britain’s Prime Minister when the act was passed. Candidates can also download the Pitt’s India Act notes PDF from the link given below.
Provisions of the Act
For political matters, the Board of Control was created and for commercial affairs, the Court of Directors was appointed.
Drawbacks of the Act
The act was deemed a failure because there was no clarity on the boundaries between the company’s powers and the government’s authority.
Doctrine of Lapse
The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy followed widely by Lord Dalhousie when he was India’s Governor-General from 1848 to 1856. It was used as an administrative policy for the extension of British Paramountcy. Important for IAS Exam, aspirants should know the facts about the Doctrine of Lapse from prelims and mains perspectives.
This article will introduce the Doctrine of Lapse along with its feature and names of the states annexed under the policy.
Who was Lord Dalhousie & What is the Doctrine of Lapse?
James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie, known commonly as Lord Dalhousie, was the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856. He had been a famous Scottish statesman.
Now, although he is commonly associated with the Doctrine of Lapse, it was devised by the Court of Directors of the East India Company as early as 1847 and several smaller states had already been annexed under this doctrine before Lord Dalhousie took the position of the Governor-General. The policy was used far more extensively by him to expand the territorial reach of the East-India Company.
The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy extensively applied by East India Company in India until 1859. The doctrine stated that any princely state under the vassalage of the company will how its territory annexed should the ruler of the said state fail to produce an heir. The doctrine and its application were regarded by many Indians as illegitimate.
The Doctrine of Lapse was one of the underlying factors that led to the revolt of 1857.
To know more about the Governor Generals of Bengal and India, visit the linked article
Features of Doctrine of Lapse
Before the introduction of this doctrine, the princely states had a ritualised method of adoption practised for centuries An heir apparent would eventually be selected from a pool of candidates, who were groomed for succession from an early age, called bhayats if no competent born-to son were produced (an obviously unsuitable or treasonous born-to son could be excluded from the succession).
If the ruler died before adopting a successor, one of his widows could adopt an heir, who would immediately accede to the throne. The adoptee would cut all ties with his birth family. Once the Doctrine of Lapse came into place the following features were now faced by the Indian rulers.
To know more about the legislation passed in British India, click on the linked article.
The Doctrine of Lapse – States Annexed
The states that were annexed under this policy are given below in chronological order:
States Annexed by Doctrine of Lapse |
Year of Annexation |
Satara |
1848 |
Jaitpur |
1849 |
Sambalpur |
1849 |
Baghat |
1850 |
Udaipur |
1852 |
Jhansi |
1853 |
Nagpur |
1854 |
Effects of Doctrine of Lapse
British Policy Of Subsidiary Alliance
Subsidiary Alliance was basically a treaty between the British East India Company and the Indian princely states, by virtue of which the Indian kingdoms lost their sovereignty to the English. It also was a major process that led to the building of the British Empire in India. It was framed by Lord Wellesley, the Governor-General of India from 1798 to 1805. It was actually used for the first time by the French Governor-General Marquis Dupleix.
The Nawab of Awadh was the first ruler to enter into the subsidiary alliance with the British after the Battle of Buxar. However, The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to accept a well-framed subsidiary alliance.
The subsidiary alliance is an important topic for the UPSC civil services exam. These NCERT notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, IAS exams and so on.
Features of the Subsidiary Alliance Treaty
Effects of the Subsidiary Alliance
Order in which the Indian States entered into Subsidiary Alliances
Land Revenue Systems In British India - Ryotwari, Mahalwari
This article talks about the important land revenue systems under the British government.
Apart from the Permanent Settlement, there were other kinds of land revenue systems under the British in India. These were the Ryotwari and the Mahalwari systems. There are plenty of books from where you can read more information about this topic, find the complete list of NCERT books needed for UPSC preparation.
Ryotwari system
Mahalwari system
Consequences of the British land revenue systems
The Famine In Bengal
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC Civil Services Exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about The Great Bengal Famine of 1770. It has been described as one of the worst disasters of pre-Independent India.
Overview of the Great Bengal Famine of 1770
A disastrous famine affected the lower Gangetic Plains of India including the regions of Bengal and Bihar between 1769 and 1773 where 1/3rd of the population perished. An estimated 10 million people died of starvation and famine-triggered epidemics that also affected the regions of Assam, Odisha, Jharkhand and Bangladesh. The territory was then ruled by the British East India Company.
Causes
Results of the Famine
The famine would have far-reaching consequences that would not only change the Indian subcontinent but even the world forever:
Regulating Act 1773 - Background, Provisions & Drawbacks
What is the Regulating Act of 1773?
The regulating Act of 1773 was passed by the British Parliament to control the territories of the East India Company majorly in Bengal. This act was passed due to the misgovernment by the British East India government that introduced a situation of bankruptcy and the government had to interfere with the affairs of the Company.
The Regulating Act was passed in the British Parliament in June 1773. It was the first parliamentary ratification and authorization defining the powers and authority of the East India Company with respect to its Indian possessions.
Background/Reasons for passing the Act
Provisions of the Regulating Act
Defects of Regulating Act 1773
The major drawbacks of The Regulating Act of 1773 are stated below:
Raja Ram Mohan Roy - Indian Social Reformer
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about Raja Ram Mohan Roy – Indian Social Reformer. Download Raja Ram Mohan Roy notes PDF from the link given below.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy Essay
Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772 – 1833)
Raja Ram Mohan Roy Contribution
Work and ideology
19th Century Social and Religious Reform Movements
Basically, there were two kinds of reform movements in the 19th century in India:
These movements responded with the time and scientific temper of the modern era.
These movements started reviving ancient Indian traditions and thoughts and believed that the western thinking ruined Indian culture and ethos.
BRAHMO SAMAJ (Reformist)
Founded in 1828 in Calcutta by pioneer social reformer Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772 – 1833), the movement fought against idol worship, polytheism, caste oppression, unnecessary rituals and other social evils like Sati, polygamy, purdah system, child marriage, etc. The society also strove for women’s rights like widow remarriage and education of women. It also fought attacked prevailing superstitions among Hindus.
ARYA SAMAJ (Revivalist)
Founded in 1875 in Bombay by Swami Dayanand Saraswati, this society strove against idolatry, polytheism, rituals, priesthood, animal sacrifice, child marriage and the caste system. It also encourages the dissemination of western scientific knowledge.
THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
Though Annie Besant’s name is most associated with this society, it was actually founded by Madame Blavatsky and Colonel Olcott in New York (later shifted to Madras) in 1875. It promoted the study of ancient Hindu, Buddhist and Zoroastrian philosophies. It promoted the concept of universal brotherhood as expounded in the Upanishads and Vedas. It laid stress on occultism.
RAMAKRISHNA MISSION
This mission was founded by Swami Vivekananda in 1892 in Belur near Calcutta to promote the teachings of Vivekananda’s Guru Ramakrishna Paramahansa. It opposed the caste system and untouchability. It focused on the universality of all religions and propagated Vedanta.
SATYASHODHAK SAMAJ
This society was founded by Jyotirao Govindrao Phule on 24 September 1873 in present-day Maharashtra. It campaigned against idolatry and the caste system. It advocated rational thinking and rejected priesthood. Jyotirao Phule is said to have used the term ‘Dalit’ for the oppressed castes.
YOUNG BENGAL MOVEMENT
This movement was started by Henry Louis Vivian Derozio in Calcutta in the 1820s. Derozio was an Anglo-Indian college teacher in Calcutta and he encouraged radical thinking among his students. He criticised the prevailing religious practices of orthodox Hinduism. He also inspired free-thinking and propagated the spirit of liberty, equality and freedom.
ALIGARH MOVEMENT (Reformist)
This movement was started by Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan in the 1860’s in Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh. It focused on spreading western scientific education among the Muslim masses in India.
WIDOW REMARRIAGE ASSOCIATION
This was founded by Vishnu Shastri Pandit and Mahadev Govind Ranade in Bombay in 1861. It promoted widow remarriage and campaigned against child marriages, the heavy cost of marriages and custom-like the shaving of widow’s head, etc.
DEOBAND MOVEMENT
This was started in 1867 in Deoband in UP by theologians, Muhammad Qasim Nanawatawi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi. It was an anti-British movement that aimed at the uplifting the Muslims through educational efforts.
Birth of Social Reformer Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar - [September 26, 1820] This Day in History
26 September 1820
Great social reformer Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was born.
What happened?
On 26 September 1820, great social reformer and a key figure of the Bengal renaissance, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was born in Birsingha village, Bengal Presidency. In this edition of This Day in History, you can read about the life and contribution of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar for the UPSC exam.
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Also on This Day
1932: Birth of Manmohan Singh, the 13th Prime Minister of India.
1975: The Constitution (39th Amendment) Bill 1975 approved by Parliament. This placed the election of the President, Vice-President, Prime Minister and the Speaker of the Lok Sabha beyond the judiciary’s scrutiny. This bill was passed during the Emergency of 1975 – 77. It was later removed.
See previous ‘This Day in History’ here.
Frequently Asked Questions related to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
What was the contribution of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar?
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar strongly protested against polygamy, child-marriage and favoured widow remarriage and women’s education in India. Because of his contribution towards such issues, the Widow Remarriage Act was passed in 1856, making the marriage of widows legal.
Why is Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar known as the father of Bengali prose?
For his efforts to simplify and modernise Bengali prose Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar is known as the father of Bengali prose. He also rationalised and simplified the Bengali alphabet and type, which had remained unchanged since the first (wooden) Bengali type was cut fro printing in 1780.
Why was the title ‘Vidyasagar’ conferred on him?
He received the title “Vidyasagar” from Sanskrit College, Calcutta, for his excellent performance in Sanskrit studies and philosophy.
British Policy Of Subsidiary Alliance
Subsidiary Alliance was basically a treaty between the British East India Company and the Indian princely states, by virtue of which the Indian kingdoms lost their sovereignty to the English. It also was a major process that led to the building of the British Empire in India. It was framed by Lord Wellesley, the Governor-General of India from 1798 to 1805. It was actually used for the first time by the French Governor-General Marquis Dupleix.
The Nawab of Awadh was the first ruler to enter into the subsidiary alliance with the British after the Battle of Buxar. However, The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to accept a well-framed subsidiary alliance.
Features of the Subsidiary Alliance Treaty
Effects of the Subsidiary Alliance
Order in which the Indian States entered into Subsidiary Alliances
The Charter Act Of 1793 - Features & Significance
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC Civil Services Exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like Bank PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about the Charter Act of 1793.
The Charter Act of 1793, also known as the East India Company Act 1793 was passed in the British Parliament in which the company charter was renewed.
Download the Charter Act of 1793 notes PDF from the link provided below.
Provisions of the Charter Act 1793
The Charter Act Of 1813 - Features & Significance
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC Civil Services Exam. These notes will also be useful for competitive exams like IAS Exam, banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about the Charter Act of 1813.
The Charter Act of 1813 passed by the British Parliament renewed the East India Company’s charter for another 20 years. This is also called the East India Company Act, 1813. This act is important in that it defined for the first time the constitutional position of British Indian territories.
Overview of the Charter Act of 1813
A cursory detail of the act is given in the table below:
Charter Act of 1813 |
|
Long Title |
An Act for continuing in the East India Company, for a further Term, the Possession of the British Territories in India, together with certain exclusive Privileges; for establishing further Regulations for the Government of the said Territories, and the better Administration of Justice within the same; and for regulating the Trade to and from the Places within the Limits of the said Company’s Charter |
Territorial Extent |
Territories under direct British control |
Enacted by |
Parliament of United Kingdom |
Royal Assent |
21 July 1813 |
Status |
Repealed by Government of India Act, 1915 |
Background of Charter Act 1813
To know more about the legislation passed in British India, click on the linked article.
Provisions of the Charter Act of 1813
Education System In India During British Rule
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about the Education System in India during British Rule.
Modern education began in India under British rule. Before the British, India had its own educational systems like the Gurukulas and the Madrassas. The East India Company, during their first 60 years of rule didn’t care much for the education of those they ruled in India. (Even in England, universal education came about at a much later stage.)
Three agents of modern education in India
Development of Modern Education
Assessment of the British efforts on education
The Charter Act of 1833 was passed in the British Parliament which renewed the East India Company’s charter for another 20 years. This was also called the Government of India Act 1833 or the Saint Helena Act 1833.
Features of the Charter Act of 1833
Provisions of the Charter Act of 1833
Significance of the Charter Act of 1833
This article talks about The First Anglo-Sikh War.
The first Anglo-Sikh war was fought between the British forces and the Sikh Empire in 1845-46 in Punjab.
Candidates can also download the First Anglo-Sikh War notes PDF from the link provided below.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh (Reign: 1801 – 1839)
First Anglo-Sikh War (1845 – 1846)
This article talks about The Second Anglo-Sikh War.
The second Anglo-Sikh war was fought between 1848 and 1849. This war led to the complete control of Punjab by the British. This area was later to become the North-Western Frontier Province.
Causes of the Second Anglo Sikh War
Causes of the Second Anglo-Sikh War
Course of the Second Anglo-Sikh War
Results of Second Anglo Sikh War
Results of the Second Anglo-Sikh War
Vellore Mutiny - 1806
The Vellore Mutiny predated the Indian Revolt of 1857 by about 50 years. It erupted on 10th July 1806 in Vellore, present-day Tamil Nadu, and lasted only for a day, but it was brutal and shook the British East India Company. It was the first major mutiny by the Indian sepoys in the East India Company. This article talks about Vellore Mutiny, 1806.
This topic is an important part of the NCERT notes relevant for the IAS aspirants. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
Download Vellore Mutiny notes PDF from the link provided below.
Vellore Mutiny-1806 (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here
Vellore Mutiny Causes
The major causes for the Vellore mutiny are stated below:
Course of events of the Vellore Mutiny
Significance of Vellore Mutiny
The major impact of the Vellore mutiny are given below:
As per certain theories, The Vellore mutiny has a major similarity with the revolt of 1857. The Revolt of 1857 was aimed at the removal of British rule and re-establishment of Mughal rule under the hierarchy of Bahadur Shah Zafar whereas the Vellore mutiny outbroke to establish the rule of Tipu Sultan successors.
Nana Saheb
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC Civil Services Exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about the contributions of the freedom fighter – Nana Saheb.
Nana Saheb/Sahib played a pivotal role in the Indian Revolt of 1857. He led the uprising at Kanpur (Cawnpore). Further details about his role his elaborated below.
Nana Saheb (1824 – 1859)
Doctrine of Lapse
The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy followed widely by Lord Dalhousie when he was India’s Governor-General from 1848 to 1856. It was used as an administrative policy for the extension of British Paramountcy. Important for IAS Exam, aspirants should know the facts about the Doctrine of Lapse from prelims and mains perspectives.
This article will introduce the Doctrine of Lapse along with its feature and names of the states annexed under the policy.
Who was Lord Dalhousie & What is the Doctrine of Lapse?
James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie, known commonly as Lord Dalhousie, was the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856. He had been a famous Scottish statesman.
Now, although he is commonly associated with the Doctrine of Lapse, it was devised by the Court of Directors of the East India Company as early as 1847 and several smaller states had already been annexed under this doctrine before Lord Dalhousie took the position of the Governor-General. The policy was used far more extensively by him to expand the territorial reach of the East-India Company.
The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy extensively applied by East India Company in India until 1859. The doctrine stated that any princely state under the vassalage of the company will how its territory annexed should the ruler of the said state fail to produce an heir. The doctrine and its application were regarded by many Indians as illegitimate.
The Doctrine of Lapse was one of the underlying factors that led to the revolt of 1857.
To know more about the Governor Generals of Bengal and India, visit the linked article
Features of Doctrine of Lapse
Before the introduction of this doctrine, the princely states had a ritualised method of adoption practised for centuries An heir apparent would eventually be selected from a pool of candidates, who were groomed for succession from an early age, called bhayats if no competent born-to son were produced (an obviously unsuitable or treasonous born-to son could be excluded from the succession).
If the ruler died before adopting a successor, one of his widows could adopt an heir, who would immediately accede to the throne. The adoptee would cut all ties with his birth family. Once the Doctrine of Lapse came into place the following features were now faced by the Indian rulers.
The Doctrine of Lapse – States Annexed
The states that were annexed under this policy are given below in chronological order:
States Annexed by Doctrine of Lapse |
Year of Annexation |
Satara |
1848 |
Jaitpur |
1849 |
Sambalpur |
1849 |
Baghat |
1850 |
Udaipur |
1852 |
Jhansi |
1853 |
Nagpur |
1854 |
Effects of Doctrine of Lapse
Rani Lakshmi Bai - Rani Of Jhansi
This article talks about Rani Laxmibai – The Rani of Jhansi. She was an epitome of courage and bravery. She was born in a Maratha family and she was an important name in the struggle for Independence against the Britishers.
This is an important topic for the UPSC IAS Exam aspirants. These NCERT notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. Candidates can also download the notes PDF from the link provided below.
Rani Lakshmi Bai Biography
Rani Laxmibai also called the Rani of Jhansi was a pivotal figure in the Indian Revolt of 1857. She is also regarded as one of the greatest freedom fighters of India.
Rani Lakshmibai was born on 19 November 1828 in the town of Varanasi. She was named Manikarnika Tambe and was nicknamed Manu. Her father was Moropant Tambe and her mother Bhagirathi Sapre (Bhagirathi Bai) who hailed from modern-day Maharashtra. At four years old her mother passed away. Her father was the Commander of War under Peshwa Baji Rao II of Bithorr District. She was educated at home, able to read and write, and was more independent in her childhood than others of her age; her studies included shooting, horsemanship, fencing which was in contrast to the cultural expectations for women in Indian society at the time.
Rani Lakshmi Bai Contributions in Indian Freedom Struggle
Rani Lakshmi Bai was known for her outstanding bravery who was an important name in the Freedom Struggle against the British. This section highlights her major activities carried out against the British Government to fulfil the dream of Free India.
10 Points about Rani Lakhmi Bai Role in the 1857 Revolt
Legacy
Robert Clive
NCERT notes on important topics for the IAS Exam aspirants. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about Robert Clive.
Robert Clive was largely responsible for the East India Company getting control of Bengal thus leading to the conquest of the entirety of the Indian Subcontinent later on. So, it can be said that Clive laid the foundations of the British Raj in India.
Who was Robert Clive?
Major-General Robert Clive (29 September 1725 – 22 November 1774), was the first British Governor of the Bengal Presidency. He began as a writer for the East India Company (EIC) who established the military and political supremacy of the EIC by securing a decisive victory at the Battle of Plassey in Bengal.
Robert Clive’s Activities in India
Robert Clive’s Rule of Bengal
Legacy of Rober Clive
Carnatic Wars - First Carnatic War
First Carnatic War Notes
Facts about the First Carnatic War
Course of the First Carnatic War
Effects of the First Carnatic War
Carnatic Wars - Second Carnatic War
Facts about the Second Carnatic War
Course of the Second Carnatic War
Groups |
Claimants for Nizam’s post (Hyderabad) |
Claimants for Nawab’s post (Carnatic) |
European Support |
1 |
Muzaffar Jung |
Chanda Sahib |
French |
2 |
Nasir Jung |
Muhammad Ali |
English |
Effects of the Second Carnatic War
The Carnatic wars were the result of the Anglo-French rivalry. This rivalry manifested in wars in Europe and in India. To know more, refer this link NCERT Notes: The First Carnatic War
Battle of Wandiwash - Third Carnatic War
The battle of Wandiwash was an attempt by the French to acquire the Fort of Vandavasi present in Tamil Nadu. This attempt was foiled by the British Forces under the command of British Lieutenant-General Sir Eyre Coote which led to the Battle of Wandiwash or Third Carnatic War.
Third Carnatic War – Details
Facts about the Third Carnatic War or Battle of Wandiwash
The course of the Third Carnatic War
Third Carnatic War Results
Effects of the Third Carnatic War
This article provided relevant information about The Battle of Wandiwash. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
Revolt of 1857 - First War of Independence Against British
The revolt of 1857 was the conscious beginning of the Independence struggle against the colonial tyranny of the British. There are various names for the revolt of 1857 – India’s First War of Independence, Sepoy Mutiny, etc.
The revolt began on May 10, 1857, at Meerut as a sepoy mutiny. It was initiated by sepoys in the Bengal Presidency against the British officers.
This war of Independence marked the end of rule by the British East India company. Post this, India was directly ruled by the British government through representatives known as Governor-General.
This article provides all relevant information related to the Revolt of 1857 and its causes and effects. This is an important topic for the Civil Services Exam and other government exams.
Immediate Reason of Revolt of 1857
The immediate factor was the introduction of the ‘Enfield’ rifle. The cartridge had to be bitten off before loading it into the gun. Indian sepoys believed that the cartridge was greased with either pig fat or made from cow fat. This was against the Hindu and Muslim sentiments and religious ideologies. Thus they were reluctant to use the ‘Enfield’ rifle. This was a flashpoint to enrage the soldiers against the Britishers. This was believed to be the immediate factor for the revolt of 1857.
Causes of Revolt of 1857
The revolt of 1857 was initiated due to various factors which are stated below:
The major policies are listed below:
To more about such important land revenue systems, check the linked article.
These three settlements were highly exploitative, and in particular, the Permanent settlement had created a devastating impact. Thus the peasants were greatly encouraged to overthrow the British Government from India and led to their active participation in the revolt of 1857.
Military Factors – The Indian soldiers faced a lot of discrimination from the British officials with respect to their salaries, pensions, promotions. Indians were subjugated in the military while their European counterparts faced no such discrimination. This led to discontent and was a major military factor that resulted in the revolt of 1857.
To know more about military factors in detail, refer to the linked article.
Vellore Mutiny
The Vellore Mutiny took place even before the revolt of 1857 (50 years before). It erupted on 10th July 1806 in Vellore, present-day Tamil Nadu, and lasted only for a day, but it was brutal and it was the first major mutiny by the Indian sepoys in the East India Company.
Impact of Revolt of 1857
The revolt of 1857 shook the foundation of British East India Company and disclosed their inefficiency in handling the Indian administration. The major impact was the introduction of Government of India act which abolished the rule of British East India Company and marked the beginning of British raj that bestowed powers in the hands of the British government to rule India directly through representatives.
To know more about the major Impact of the revolt of 1857, refer to the linked article.
Causes of Failure of the revolt of 1857
The revolt was eventually not successful in ousting the British from the country because of several factors.
List of Important Leaders associated with the revolt of 1857
Place |
Revolt of 1857 -Important Leaders |
Delhi |
Bahadur Shah II, General Bakht Khan |
Lucknow |
Begum Hazrat Mahal, Birjis Qadir, Ahmadullah |
Kanpur |
Nana Sahib, Rao Sahib, Tantia Tope, Azimullah Khan |
Jhansi |
Rani Laxmibai |
Bihar |
Kunwar Singh, Amar Singh |
Rajasthan |
Jaidayal Singh and Hardayal Singh |
Farrukhabad |
Tufzal Hasan Khan |
Assam |
Kandapareshwar Singh, Maniram Dutta Baruah |
Orissa |
Surendra Shahi, Ujjwal Shahi |
Frequently Asked Questions – Revolt of 1857
Who coined the name Sepoy Mutiny?
In India, the term First War of Independence was first popularized by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in his 1909 book The History of the War of Indian Independence.
What was the immediate reason for the revolt of 1857?
The immediate factor was the introduction of the ‘Enfield’ rifle. It was said that the cartridge of this rifle was wrapped in the fat of cow and pig. The cartridge had to be bitten off before loading it into the gun. Thus the Hindu and Muslim soldiers were reluctant to use the ‘Enfield’ rifle.
What are the causes of revolt 1857?
There are many reasons that led to the revolt of 1857. Major reasons for the revolt can be broadly classified into – Political, Social, Economic, Religious, Military, etc. The causes have been discussed in this article under respective sections.
Legislations in British India - List of Acts Passed in British India
The legislations in British India included legislative bodies in the presidencies and provinces of British India. These legislations were created under Acts of Parliament of the United Kingdom.
They were responsible for passing many laws that to this day are used in Independent India. This article will provide a list of acts passed by the British in India.
This topic is important for IAS Exam from both prelims and mains perspectives.
Legislations in British India (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here
List of acts passed by British in India
Legislations of British India – Introduction
It is one thing being familiar with the legislative acts passed during the British colonial rule but candidates must also know why some of these acts were passed. The display of extra knowledge will increase the chances of scoring higher marks in the exam.
The purposes of some of these acts are highlighted below:
Legislation in British India
Name of Legislation |
Purpose of Legislation |
Date of Enactment |
Regulating Act of 1773 |
To overhaul management of East India Company’s rule in India |
June 10th, 1773 |
Pitt’s India Act of 1784 |
This act was passed to address the shortcomings of the Regulating Act of 1773. It provided for the joint rule of the crown and company with the crown being the supreme authority. |
August 13th, 1784 |
Charter Act of 1813 |
It renewed the charter issued to East India Company by the British Crown but also ended the company’s monopoly in certain areas of trade. |
(Royal Assent) July 21st, 1813 |
Bengal Sati Regulation Act of 1829 |
This act made the practice of Sati illegal in all areas under company rule and its practitioners liable to prosecution |
December 4th, 1829 |
Hindu Widows Remarriage Act of 1856 |
This act legalised the remarriage of widows, who were earlier forbidden from marrying and shunned from society as a result. |
July 26th, 1856 |
Government of India Act of 1858 |
Following the 1857 mutiny, the British Parliament passed this act to liquidate the East India Company. The colonial rule of India came directly under the control of the British Government. This act marks the beginning of the British Raj. |
August 2nd, 1858 (Commenced, 1st November 1858) |
Indian Councils Act of 1892 |
This act bought various amendments to the composition and function of legislative councils of British India |
February 3rd, 1893 (Royal Assent on June 20th, 1892) |
Government of India Act of 1919 |
This act expanded the participation of Indians in the government of India when earlier only British members were allowed to take part. |
December 23rd, 1919 |
Rowlatt Act, 1919 |
This act indefinitely extended the emergency measures of preventive indefinite detention, incarceration without trial and judicial review enacted in the Defence of India Act 1915 |
March 18th, 1919 |
Government of India Act of 1935 |
The act allowed for a greater degree of autonomy to the provinces of British India ending the diarchy introduced by the Government of India Act, 1919 |
April 1st, 1937 (Royal assent on 24th July 1935) |
Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 |
This act regulates the Indian Labour Law with regards to trade unions as well as individual workmen |
April 1st, 1947 |
Indian Independence Act, 1947 |
It is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that partitioned British India into the two new independent dominions of India and Pakistan. |
August 15, 1947 (Royal assent – July 18th, 1947 |
Causes Of Indian National Movement
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC Civil Services Exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about the Causes of the Rise of the Indian National Movement.
Candidates can also download the notes PDF from the link provided below.
Causes of Indian National Movement (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here
The rise of national consciousness in India took place towards the latter half of the 19th century only. Before that, there were struggles and battles against British colonialism but they were all confined to smaller areas and in any case, did not encompass the whole of India. In fact, some scholars at the time did not consider India to be a country. Though political union had occurred in the past under great kings like Ashoka and Akbar and under the Marathas to an extent, they were not permanent. However, cultural unity was always seen and foreign powers always referred to the subcontinent as India or Hind as being one entity, despite being ruled by many rulers.
It can be said that the national movement, with the political and social emancipation of the people as its aim, arose in India in 1885, with the formation of the Indian National Congress.
Causes of the rise of the National Movement in India
Macaulay had instituted a western educational system in India with the sole aim of creating a class of educated Indians who could serve their colonial masters in the administration of the ‘natives’. This idea sort of backfired because it created a class of Indians who became exposed to the liberal and radical thoughts of European writers who expounded liberty, equality, democracy and rationality. Also, the English language united Indians from various regions and religions.
The 19th century also saw the revival of vernacular languages. This helped the propagation of the ideas of liberty and rational thought to the masses.
British imperialism put an end to the old social order of the country. This was resented by many Indians.
Socio-religious reform movements of the 19th century helped a great deal in the rise of nationalism in India. These movements sought to remove superstition and societal evils prevalent then, and spread the word of unity, rational and scientific thought, women empowerment and patriotism among the people. Notable reformers were Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Jyotiba Phule and so on.
The oppressive economic policies of the British led to widespread poverty and indebtedness among the Indians especially farmers. Famines which led to the deaths of lakhs were a regular occurrence. This led to a bitter sense of suppression and sowed the seeds of a yearning for liberty from foreign rule.
Under the British, most parts of India were put under a single political set-up. The system of administration was consolidated and unified throughout all regions. This factor led to the feeling of ‘oneness’ and nationhood among Indians.
The British built a network of roads, railways, post and telegraph systems in the country. This led to increased movements of people from one part of the country to another and increased the flow of information. All this accelerated the rise of a national movement in India.
This period also saw the rise of the Indian press, both in English and in the regional languages. This also was an important factor that helped in the dissemination of information.
Lord Lytton was the Viceroy of India from 1876 to 1880. In 1876, there was a famine in south Indian which saw the deaths of almost 10 million people. His trading policies were criticised for having aggravated the famine. Also, he conducted the grand Delhi Durbar in 1877 spending huge amount of money at a time when people were dying of hunger.
Lytton also passed the Vernacular Press Act 1878 which authorised the government to confiscate newspapers that printed ‘seditious material’. He also passed the Arms Act 1878 which prohibited Indians from carrying weapons of any kind without licenses. The act excluded Englishmen.
After the Revolt of 1857 and its bitter crushing by the British, there was deep racial tension between the British and the Indians.
In 1883, the Ilbert Bill was introduced which gave Indian judges the power to hear cases against European, by the then Viceroy Lord Ripon and Sir Courtenay Ilbert, the legal advisor to the Council of India. But there was a huge outcry against this bill from Britishers in India and in Britain. Arguments made against this bill displayed the deep racial prejudice the English had for Indians. This also exposed the true nature of British colonialism to the educated Indians.
There were many national movements outside the country that inspired the Indian nationalists like the French Revolution, the American War of Independence and so on.
The Moderate Phase Of The Indian National Movement
NCERT notes on important topics for UPSC Civil Services Exam preparation. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like Bank PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. In this article, you can read about the moderate phase of the Indian National Congress.
Indian nationalism arose in the latter half of the 19th century as a result of various factors like western education, socio-religious reforms, British policies and so on. In 1885, the Indian National Congress was formed which played a significant role in India’s freedom movement.
The time period from 1885 to 1905 can be called the ‘Moderate Phase’. The leaders of this phase are called moderates.
The Indian National Congress (INC)
To know more about the Difference between Moderates and Extremists of the Indian Freedom struggle, visit the linked article
Prominent moderate leaders
Dadabhai Naoroji
Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee
G Subramania Aiyer
Gopal Krishna Gokhale
Sir Surendranath Banerjee
Other moderate leaders included Rash Behari Ghosh, R C Dutt, M G Ranade, Pherozeshah Mehta, P R Naidu, Madan Mohan Malaviya, P. Ananda Charlu, and William Wedderburn.
Aims and demands of the moderates
The Charter Act Of 1853 - Features & Significance
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC Civil Services Exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about the 1853 Charter Act.
The Charter Act 1853 was passed in the British Parliament to renew the East India Company’s charter. Unlike the previous charter acts of 1793, 1813 and 1833 which renewed the charter for 20 years; this act did not mention the time period for which the company charter was being renewed. This Act was passed when Lord Dalhousie was the Governor-General of India.
Candidates can also download the Charter Act of 1853 notes PDF from the link given below.
Read the Charter Acts of 1793, 1813 and 1833 in the linked articles given below:
Provisions of the Charter Act 1853
Features of the Charter Act 1853
Government Of India Act 1858
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
This article talks about the Government of India Act 1858 which is an important part of modern Indian history for IAS exam.
The Government of India Act 1858 was an Act of the British parliament that transferred the government and territories of the East India Company to the British Crown. The company’s rule over British territories in India came to an end and it was passed directly to the British government.
To know more about the legislation passed in British India, click on the linked article. Also, download Government of India Act 1858 notes PDF from the link given below.
Government Of India Act 1858 (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here
Overview of the Government of India Act, 1858
A cursory detail of the act is given in the table below:
Government of India Act, 1858
Long Title |
An Act for the Better Government of India |
Territorial Extent |
Territories under direct British control as well as the Princely State who had to accept the suzerainty of the British Crown |
Enacted by |
Parliament of Great Britain |
Royal Assent |
2nd August 1858 |
Commenced |
1st November 1858 |
Status |
Amended |
Government of India Act 1858
Features of Government of India Act 1858
1. Provisions of the Government of India Act 1858
2. Facts – Government of India Act 1858
Indian Councils Act - 1861
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC Civil Services Exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like Bank PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about the Indian Councils Act of 1861.
The Indian Councils Act 1861 was an act of the British Parliament that made significant changes in the Governor-General’s Council. Candidates can also download Indian Councils Act notes PDF from the link given below.
Provisions of the Indian Councils Act 1861
Assessment of the Indian Councils Act 1861
Indian Councils Act 1892
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about the Indian Councils Act of 1892. Modern history is an important segment in the UPSC exam syllabus.
The Indian Councils Act 1892 was an act of the British Parliament that increased the size of the legislative councils in India.
To know more about the legislation passed in British India, click on the linked article.
Indian Councils Act 1892 (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here
Overview of the Indian Councils Act, 1892
A cursory detail of the act is given in the table below:
Indian Councils Act, 1892
Introduced by |
Richard Assheton Cross, 1st Viscount Cross |
Territorial Extent |
Territories under the direct control of the British Crown |
Enacted by |
Parliament of the United Kingdom |
Royal Assent |
20th June 1892 |
Commenced |
3rd February 1893 |
Status |
Repealed by Government of India Act 1915 |
Indian Councils Act 1892 Notes
To know more about the Governor Generals of Bengal and India, visit the linked article.
Indian Councils Act 1892 Features
Provisions of the Indian Councils Act 1892
Assessment of the Indian Councils Act 1892
Morley-Minto Reforms 1909
The Indian Councils Act 1909 was an act of the British Parliament that introduced a few reforms in the legislative councils and increased the involvement of Indians (limited) in the governance of British India. It was more commonly called the Morley-Minto Reforms after the Secretary of State for India John Morley and the Viceroy of India, the 4th Earl of Minto.
This is an important topic in the NCERT notes for the UPSC Civil Services Exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about the background of Morley-Minto Reforms along with the provisions these reforms brought along.
Background of Morley-Minto Reforms
To know more about the Governor Generals of Bengal and India, visit the linked article.
Major provisions of the Morley-Minto reforms
To know more about the legislation passed in British India, click on the linked article.
Assessment of the Morley-Minto reforms
The Partition Of Bengal - 1905
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC Civil Services Exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil service exams and so on. This article talks about the Partition of Bengal, 1905 and the causes, effects and outcomes of the partition.
Lord Curzon was the Viceroy of India from 1899 to 1905. The partition of the Bengal province came into effect during his viceroyalty on 16th October 1905.
Reaction to the partition of Bengal
Indian National Movement – Extremist Period
In the beginning of the 20th century, a new class of national leaders emerged in India which was different from the moderate group. They took a more aggressive stance against the British Empire. They were typically younger and did not believe in the soft and persuasive approach of moderate leaders.
This is an important topic for UPSC and is also relevant for different government exams.
Download Indian National Movement notes PDF from the link given below.
The extremist phase of Indian nationalism is from 1905 to 1920.
Background/Causes of the rise of extremism
Government reaction to extremists
Impact of the Extremist Period
Bal Gangadhar Tilak [1856-1920]
Bal Gangadhar Tilak was one of the most important leaders of the Indian Independence Movement. He is also known as ‘Father of Indian Unrest.’ This article shares details on the life history of Bal Gangadhar Tilak, his contributions in making India a free country and other related facts.
Who was Bal Gangadhar Tilak?
Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Bal Gangadhar Tilak, commonly known as Lokamanya Tilak was a leader of the Indian independence movement and belonged to the extremist faction. He was also called the ‘Father of Indian Unrest’.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s Personal Life
Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s Political Life
Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s Social Views
Books Written By Bal Gangadhar Tilak
The two important books are written by Tilak:
Gist of Facts Related to Lokamanya Tilak
Lala Lajpat Rai (1865-1928)
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC Civil Services Exam preparation. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
Lala Lajpat Rai was a prolific freedom fighter for India. His death anniversary, 17th November is celebrated as Martyr’s Day in India.
Contributions of Lala Lajpat Rai
Revolutionary Movement In India
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC Civil Services Exam preparation. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
Though the Indian freedom struggle post-1857 was largely free of violence, there was a revolutionary movement also aimed at winning India independence involving a lot of young Indian men and women. They believed that only an armed struggle against the government would deliver India from British rule.
They employed violent means. They were mainly crushed by the British authorities but they were successful in inspiring many Indians towards the freedom struggle. Their stories of heroism and sacrifice for the motherland motivated and continues to motivate people to live and die for the country.
The revolutionary movement in India is an important topic for the IAS Exam. Candidates can download the notes PDF from the link given below.
The revolutionary movement in India for the freedom struggle
The First Case: Chapekar Brothers (1897)
Alipore Bomb Conspiracy Case (1908)
Curzon Wyllie's Assassination (1909)
Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy Case (1912)
Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930)
Central Assembly Bomb Case (1929) & Lahore Conspiracy Case (1931)
Frequently Asked Questions related to Revolutionary Movement in India
Who initiated the revolutionary movement in India?
It was Aurobindo Ghosh, his brother Barin Ghosh, Bhupendranath Datta, Lal Bal Pal and Subodh Chandra Mullick initiated the revolutionary activity against the British rule. They formed a Jugantar party in April 1906 AD as an inner circle of the Anushilan Samiti.
Who is regarded as the ‘Father of Revolutionary Thoughts’of India?
Bipin Chandra Pal is known as the ‘Father of Revolutionary Thoughts’. He was among the triumvirate of Lal, Bal, Pal which consisted of Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Bipin Chandra Pal
Government of India Act 1919
The Government of India Act 1919 was an act of the British Parliament that sought to increase the participation of Indians in the administration of their country. The act was based on the recommendations of a report by Edwin Montagu, the then Secretary of State for India, and Lord Chelmsford, India’s Viceroy between 1916 and 1921. Hence the constitutional reforms set forth by this act are known as Montagu-Chelmsford reforms or Montford reforms.
The topic, ‘Government of India Act 1919’ is important for IAS Exam and is a part of Modern Indian History. This article will provide relevant facts about the act and aspirants can also download the notes PDF from the link provided in the article.
Principle Features of Government of India Act 1919
Government of India Act, 1919 – Other Salient Features
Merits of the Government of India Act 1919
Limitations of the Government of India Act 1919
Mahatma Gandhi's Early Movements - Champaran, Ahmedabad Mill Strike & Kheda Satyagraha
With the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi in the Indian Independence struggle, there have been led, many significant movements which are important to be read for IAS Exam. The famous satyagraha movement includes – Champaran Satyagraha, Ahmedabad Mill Strike and Kheda Satyagraha.
The Rise of Gandhi in the Indian Freedom Struggle
M K Gandhi returned from South Africa (where he had lived for more than 20 years) to India in 1915. There he had led a peaceful agitation against the discrimination meted out to Indians and had emerged as a respected leader. It was in South Africa that he developed his brand of Satyagraha. In India, he first used this tool against the British government at Champaran in Bihar.
Note: Aspirants of UPSC 2021 should know the trick to remember the Satyagraha movements chronologically by using the acronym CAKE. ‘C’ stands for Champaran (1917), ‘A’ stands for Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) and ‘KE’ stands for Kheda Satyagraha (1918).
Champaran Satyagraha (1917)
Kheda Satyagraha (1918)
Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)
In all these movements, Gandhi was able to involve the masses including farmers, artisans and even the so-called lower castes. This was a change from the previous movements when the participation was limited to the upper and the middle classes.
Questions related to Mahatma Gandhi’s Early Movements
What happened in the Ahmedabad Mill Strike?
The Ahmedabad Mill Strike was an episode in Modern Indian History where workers of textile mills in Ahmedabad fought for economic justice when the mill owners discontinued their plague bonuses. Mahatma Gandhi undertook his first fast unto death on 15th March 1918.
What was plague bonus in Ahmedabad Mill Strike?
In 1917, Ahmedabad witnessed a plague epidemic due to destruction of agricultural crops because of heavy monsoon. Plague bonus was given to the mill workers by the mill owners to help dissuade them from feeling from the work.
Who led the Ahmedabad Mill Strike in 1918?
Who led the Ahmedabad Mill Strike in 1918?
Mahatma Gandhi led the Ahmedabad Mill Strike after Anusuyya Sarabhai (Ahmedabad Mill Owners’ Association President) urged Gandhi to intervene in the matter.
Why is Champaran famous?
Champaran is famous for the Champaran Satyagraha in 1917. It was led by Mahatma Gandhi against the Tinkathia system imposed by European planters. Champaran Satyagraha marked the first civil disobedience movement.
Who invited Gandhi for Champaran Satyagraha?
Raj Kumar Shukla (An agriculturist) persuaded Mahatma Gandhi to visit Champaran.
What did the peasants of Kheda demand?
Kheda Satyagraha is a peasant struggle against the British government’s demand of the full realisation of the land tax by the peasants despite famine and crop losses. Hence, the peasants of Kheda demanded non-payment of land taxes.
Rowlatt Act & Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)
The Rowlatt Act was passed by the British government to increase their grip on power over the common folk. This law was passed in March 1919 by the Imperial Legislative Council which gave them the power to arrest any person without any trial. To abolish this act, Gandhi and the other leaders called for a Hartal (suspension of work) to show Indians’ objection with this rule.
The Jallianwala Bagh massacre or the Amritsar Massacre took place when many villagers gathered in the park for the celebration of Baisakhi. The gatherers wanted to also peacefully protest the arrest and deportation of two national leaders, Satyapal and Saifuddin Kitchlew.
Both the topics, ‘Rowlatt Act’ and ‘Jallianwala Bagh Massacre’ are important for IAS Exam from the perspective of Modern History syllabus.
Overview of the Rowlatt Act, 1919
A cursory detail of the act is given in the table below:
Rowlatt Act, 1919 |
|
Long Title |
Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919 |
Territorial Extent |
The whole of British India |
Enacted by |
Imperial Legislative Council |
Enacted |
March 1919 |
Commenced |
March 1919 |
Status |
Repealed |
What is the Rowlatt Act?
The basic facts about the act and its significance are given below:
What is the story of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre?
The Lucknow Pact, 1916
The Lucknow Pact is an agreement between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the All India Muslim League reached at a joint session of both the parties held at Lucknow in 1916. The pact was important in that it enhanced the League’s power in Indian politics and established communalism as an unavoidable part of Indian politics despite the apparent bonhomie between the two communities at the session.
Background to Lucknow Pact
Reforms suggested in the Lucknow Pact
Results of Lucknow Pact
Non-Cooperation Movement
The non-cooperation movement was launched on 5th September 1920 by the Indian National Congress (INC) under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. In September 1920, in Congress session in Calcutta, the party introduced the Non-Cooperation programme. It signified a new chapter in the history of the Indian freedom struggle. The details about the Non-Cooperation Movement for IAS Exam, are mentioned in this article, both from the UPSC Prelims and Mains perspectives.
Non-Cooperation Movement and Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi was the main force behind the non-cooperation movement. In March 1920, he issued a manifesto declaring a doctrine of the non-violent non-cooperation movement. Gandhi, through this manifesto, wanted people to:
Gandhi travelled across the nation in 1921 explaining the tenets of the movement.
Features of the Non-Cooperation Movement
Causes of Non-Cooperation Movement
Why was the Non-Cooperation Movement suspended?
Significance of Non-Cooperation Movement
Facts about Non-Cooperation Movement for UPSC
Aspirants preparing for UPSC 2021 should read the facts given below about the movement:
Personalities Associated with Non-Cooperation Movement |
Role in the Non-Cooperation Movement |
Mahatma Gandhi |
|
C.R. Das |
|
Jawaharlal Nehru |
|
Subhash Chandra Bose |
|
Ali brothers (Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali) |
|
Motilal Nehru |
|
Lala Lajpat Rai |
|
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel |
Home Rule Movement
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam preparation. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
Between the years 1916 and 1918, the Indian independence movement witnessed the growth and spread of the home rule movement spearheaded by leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant. The aim of the home rule movement was the attainment of home rule or a dominion status for India under the British Empire along the lines of countries like Canada and Australia. This movement was carried out through the two home rule leagues.
Salt Satyagraha - History, Facts & Cause Of Salt March
This article will update you on Salt Satyagraha also known as Salt March/Dandi March or Civil Disobedience Movement.
NCERT notes on Salt Satyagraha is an important topic for the UPSC Civil Service Exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
Salt Satyagraha
The Salt Satyagraha was a mass civil disobedience movement initiated by Mahatma Gandhi against the salt tax imposed by the British government in India. He led a large group of people from Sabarmati Ashram on 12th March 1930 till Dandi, a coastal village in Gujarat, to break the salt law by producing salt from seawater.
The course of the Salt Satyagraha
Popular Uprisings in the 18th and 19th Centuries - Politico-Religious Movements
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam preparation. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
The British gradually established their political and economic hegemony over large parts of India after the Battle of Plassey in 1757. This resulted in the disruption in the old way of life and all sections of society were affected by it. Changes were seen in the economic, social, religious and political spheres of life. This resulted in many people getting stripped off their traditional rights and privileges and also saw many people sink into debt and poverty. This led to many uprisings against the British and also sometimes against the Indian landlords by peasants and tribals. Many rebellions were also led by landlords and deposed chieftains against the British. The popular uprisings can be classified into:
Politico-Religious Movements
These movements had a religious framework although political and economic reasons were also responsible for them. The main politico-religious movements are as follows.
Sanyasi Uprising (1770-1820’s)
Pagal Panthi Revolt (1825 – 1850’s)
Moplah Rebellion of 1921
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam preparation. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
Moplah Rebellion of 1921
The Moplah Rebellion, also known as the Moplah Riots of 1921 was the culmination of a series of riots by Mappila Muslims of Kerala in the 19th and early 20th centuries against the British and the Hindu landlords in Malabar (Northern Kerala). It was an armed revolt. It was led by Variyamkunnath Kunjahammed Haji.
Background
Background of Moplah Rebellion
The course of Moplah Rebellion
Assessment of the Moplah Rebellion
Consequences of Moplah Rebellion
Popular Uprisings against British by Deposed Chieftains and Landlords
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam preparation. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
The British establishment of political and economic dominance over many parts of India after the Battle of Plassey, 1757 disrupted the political, social and economic order of the country. This led to the divesting of many landlords and chieftains of their power, properties and estates. Naturally, many of them revolted against the British. Two rebellions by the deposed landlords and chieftains were led by Veerapandi Kottabomman and Velu Thambi Dalawa.
Polygar Rebellions (1799 – 1805)
Revolt of Velu Thambi Dalawa (1805 – 09)
Tribal Uprisings in the 18th and 19th Centuries
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam preparation. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like bank PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about the tribal movements in India for the UPSC exams.
Tribal Uprisings in British India
Many of the various tribal groups in India revolted against the forceful and devastating intrusions into their life and region by the British. The tribals had been living peacefully and in harmony with nature for hundreds of years in their own forests prior to the arrival of the colonial powers. The British came and introduced many changes in their way of life and also introduced outsiders into their turf. This reduced them to the status of labourers and debtors from masters of their own land. The uprisings were basically against this unwelcome intrusion and a fight for their independence.
Candidates can also download Tribal Uprisings in British India notes PDF from the link given below.
Causes of Tribal Revolts in India
Causes of the tribal uprisings
These were the main uprisings by the non-frontier tribals. The frontier tribals also revolted against the British annexation of their lands. The main frontier tribal uprisings were Khasi Uprising (the 1830s), Ahom Revolt (1828) and Singhphos Rebellion. In the 20th century, Rani Gaidiniliu led the Naga Movement.
Peasant Movements in the 19th Century - Indigo Rebellion
Indigo Rebellion
The Indigo Rebellion (Neel Bidroho) took place in Bengal in 1859-60 and was a revolt by the farmers against British planters who had forced them to grow indigo under terms that were greatly unfavourable to the farmers.
Causes of the Indigo Rebellion/Revolt
Assessment of the Indigo Rebellion
Peasant Movements in the 19th Century
With the rise in agrarian stress, the peasants of Maharashtra rose to revolt in 1875. The peasant uprisings make an important topic for the IAS Exam from the context of Modern History. This article will provide NCERT notes on the Deccan Riot of 1875.
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam preparation. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams, and so on.
Deccan Riot of 1875 – Background
In 1875, peasants in the Bombay Presidency rose in rebellion against the agrarian crisis that faced them.
Deccan Riots 1875 India
Peasant Movements In Modern Indian History
The Rangpur Dhing (rebellion) erupted in the district of Rangpur, Bengal in 1783. It was a protest by the peasants and the Zamindars against the very high demands of revenue by the government. Rangpur Dhing rebellion is one of the peasant movements that should be read under Modern Indian History for IAS Exam.
This article will provide you with NCERT notes on Rangpur Dhing (rebellion) for the UPSC civil services exam preparation. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like bank PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
Causes of the Rangpur Dhing
Rangpur Dhing – The Uprising
Effect of the Rangpur Dhing
Simon Commission
The Simon Commission was a group of 7 MPs from Britain who were sent to India in 1928 to study constitutional reforms and make recommendations to the government. The Commission was originally named the Indian Statutory Commission. It came to be known as the Simon Commission after its chairman Sir John Simon.
Important for IAS Exam, this topic is a part of Modern Indian History. This article will provide relevant information about the Simon Commission from both prelims and mains perspectives.
Simon Commission – Background
It was Government of India Act 1919 that announced that in 10 years from 1919, a royal commission will be set up to report on the working of the act. Read the points below to understand the background of the Simon Commission:
Why was Simon Commission boycotted?
Impact of the Simon Commission
Simon Commission is an important topic for Modern Indian History syllabus. Aspirants preparing for UPSC 2021 should carefully read the facts about the commission.
Swaraj Party
The Swaraj Party or the Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party was formed on 1 January 1923 by C R Das and Motilal Nehru. The formation of the Swaraj Party came after various significant events like the withdrawal of non-cooperation movement, the government of India act 1919 and 1923 elections. The formation of this party is an important chapter in Modern Indian History and should be well-read for IAS Exam.
This article will provide details about the Swaraj Party from the competitive exams’ perspectives.
Swaraj Party (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here
Swaraj Party – Background
How the party came into the picture can be understood by the following points mentioned below:
Aims of the Swaraj Party
The Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party or the Swaraj Party aimed for:
Significance of Swaraj Party
Aspirants preparing for UPSC 2020 can check the previous year question papers to align their preparation accordingly.
Swaraj Party and its Achievements
Drawbacks of Swaraj Party
Bardoli Satyagraha
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC exam preparation. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
The Bardoli Satyagraha, 1928 was a movement in the independence struggle led by Sardar Vallabhai Patel for the farmers of Bardoli against the unjust raising of taxes. This is an important topic in the history portion of the IAS exam.
Download Bardoli Satyagraha notes PDF from the link provided below.
Bardoli Satyagraha (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here
Bardoli Satyagraha
Bardoli Satyagraha Effects
Bardoli Satyagraha Criticism
Vaikom Satyagraha
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC Civil Services Exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like bank PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about the Vaikom Satyagraha.
Vaikom Satyagraha was a movement in Travancore (modern-day Kerala) for temple entry of the depressed classes. It took place near the Shiva Temple at Vaikom, Kottayam district, Kerala during 1924-25. Vaikom was at that time a part of the princely state of Travancore.
This is an important topic for the IAS Exam. Download Vaikom Satyagraha notes PDF from the link provided below.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact
The rejection of demands put forward by Mahatma Gandhi in Delhi Manifesto led to Lahore Congress session. Later, under the civil disobedience movement, Gandhi put forward 11 demands and gave an ultimatum of January 31, 1930, to accept or reject. In July 1930 the viceroy, Lord Irwin, suggested a round table conference and reiterated the goal of dominion status.
On January 25, 1931, Gandhi and all other members of the Congress Working Committee (CWC) were released from jail unconditionally. The CWC authorised Gandhi to initiate discussions with the viceroy Lord Irwin. Later a pact was signed in Delhi, which came to be known as Delhi-Pact or Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
This article will provide you with relevant NCERT notes UPSC IAS Exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
Candidates can also download Gandhi-Irwin Pact notes PDF from the link provided below.
Significance of Gandhi-Irwin Pact
Gandhi-Irwin Pact is a very important part of the History syllabus for the IAS exam General Studies. History is a very interesting subject and even as an optional, is taken by many IAS aspirants.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact is the name given to a political agreement concluded by Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy of India, on 5th March 1931.
Background of Gandhi-Irwin Pact
Features of Gandhi-Irwin Pact
Result of Gandhi Irwin Pact
Gandhi – Irwin Pact – Demands of Gandhi not agreed to by Irwin:
First Round Table Conference 1930
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam preparation. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
The Round Table Conferences were a series of three conferences conducted by the Labour Party-led British government to deliberate upon and bring about constitutional reforms in British India during 1930-32. There were three such conferences. The First Round Table Conference was held between November 1930 and January 1931 in London.
Background
Background for the First Round Table Conference
Participants
Participants in the First Round Table Conference
Issues discussed
Issues discussed in the First Round Table Conference
Effects
Effects of the First Round Table Conference
Second and Third Round Table Conferences
The labour government formed under Ramsay MacDonald in 1929 found the Simon report inadequate. This led to a decision of having round table conferences in London in response to the Simon report.
The first round table conference was conducted from 12 November 1930 to 19 January 1931. Majority of the leaders from the Indian National Congress could not participate in this conference due to Gandhi’s Civil Disobedience movement. However, the results obtained from the 1st round table conference were minimal.
To know more about the 1st round table conference in detail, check the linked article.
Second Round Table Conference (September 1931- December 1931)
The Second Round Table Conference was held in London from 7 September 1931 to 1 December 1931 with the participation of Gandhi and the Indian National Congress.
Participants of the Second Round table conference
Outcome – Second Round Table Conference
The session started on 7 September 1931. The major difference between the first and the second conference was that the INC was participating in the second one. This was one of the results of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
Another difference was that unlike the previous time, British PM Macdonald was heading not a Labour government, but a National government. The Labour Party had been toppled two weeks before in Britain.
The British decided to grant a communal award for representing minorities in India by providing for separate electorates for minority communities. Gandhi was against this.
In this conference, Gandhi and Ambedkar differed on the issue of separate electorates for the untouchables. Gandhi was against treating untouchables as separate from the Hindu community. This issue was resolved through the Poona Pact 1932.
The second round table conference was deemed a failure because of the many disagreements among the participants. While the INC claimed to speak for the whole of the country, other participants and leaders of other parties contested this claim.
Third Round Table Conference (November 1932– December 1932)
The third Round Table Conference took place between 17 November 1932 and 24 December 1932.
Participants of the Third Round table conference
Outcome
Not much was achieved in this conference also. The recommendations of this conference were published in a White Paper in 1933 and later discussed in the British Parliament. The recommendations were analysed and the Government of India Act of 1935 was passed on its basis.
Government of India Act 1935
The Government of India Act was passed by the British Parliament in August 1935. It was the longest act enacted by the British Parliament at that time. So, it was divided into two separate acts namely, the Government of India Act 1935 and the Government of Burma Act 1935.
The topic comes under Modern Indian History which is an important subject in IAS Exam. This article will provide you with relevant facts about the Government of India Act 1935. Aspirants can also download the notes PDF from the link provided in the article.
Government of India Act, 1935 – Overview
A cursory detail of the act is given in the table below:
Government of India Act 1935 |
|
Aim |
An Act to make further provision for the Government of India. |
Territorial Extent |
Territories under direct British control |
Enacted by |
Parliament of United Kingdom |
Royal Assent |
24th July 1935 |
Commenced |
1st April 1937 |
Status |
Repealed on 26th January 1950 in India |
Read about other important Government of India Acts under British Rule from the links below:
Government of India Act 1858 |
Government of India Act, 1935 – Background
Read about related terms below:
To know more about the legislation passed in British India, click on the linked article.
Creation of an All India Federation
Read about the integration of princely states post India’s independence in the linked article.
How Government of India Act 1935 divided powers?
To know more about the Governor Generals of Bengal and India, visit the linked article.
Certain changes that were brought through the government of India Act, 1935 are mentioned in the table below, followed by details
Government of India Act, 1935 – Changes Brought by the Act:
Government of India Act, 1935 – Changes Brought by the Act |
|
S.No |
Features |
1. |
Provincial autonomy |
2. |
Diarchy at the centre |
3. |
Bicameral legislature |
4. |
Federal court |
5. |
Indian Council |
6. |
Franchise |
7. |
Reorganisation |
Poona Pact - 1932
The Poona Pact is an agreement between M K Gandhi and B R Ambedkar signed in the Yerwada Central Jail, Poona on September 24th, 1932 on behalf of the depressed class for the reservation of the electoral seats in the Legislature of the British Government.
This is an important topic for the UPSC Exam and these notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like bank exams, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
This Pact ended the fast that Gandhi had undertaken in the jail to protest against British Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald’s award of a separate electorate to the Depressed Classes.
Cripps Mission
The Cripps Mission was sent by the British government to India in March 1942 to obtain Indian cooperation for the British war efforts in the 2nd World War. It was headed by Sir Richard Stafford Cripps, a labour minister in Winston Churchill’s coalition government in Britain. Important for IAS Exam, Cripps Mission is an important topic under Modern Indian History.
Cripps Mission – Background
The Purpose of Cripps Mission
Following the World War-II, the Cripps Mission had several reasons to come to India. The reasons are given below:
Proposals of Cripps Mission
Significance of Cripps Mission
Why did the Cripps Mission Fail?
Note:
After the failure of the mission, Cripps returned to England, and the Congress-led by Gandhi started their new campaign, the Quit India Movement in August 1942.
Indian National Congress Rejected the Mission
INC rejected the Cripps Mission for the following reasons:
1. The INC was against the provinces’ right to separately form unions as this was
damaging to national unity.
2. They were also against the Governor-General’s power being retained as against him
being only a constitutional head.
3. They also protested the lack of share in defence.
4. There was no concrete plan for the immediate transfer of power.
Muslim League Rejected the Cripps Mission
Muslim League rejected the Cripps Mission for the following reasons:
1. They did not like the idea of a single union of India.
2. They protested against the method for the Constituent Assembly’s creation and also
against the procedure to decide on the provinces’ accession to the Indian union.
The significance of Cripps Mission is important to understand as it was the first time in history when Indian dominion was recognised.
Subhas Chandra Bose
As an Indian Nationalist, Subhash Chandra Bose made significant attempts to defy colonialism. He is one of those great freedom fighters, whom the nation remembers always. For the IAS Exam, knowing about remarkable freedom fighters and nationalist leaders is important.
This article will provide relevant facts about Subhash Chandra Bose. Candidates can also download the notes PDF from the link provided below.
Subhash Chandra Bose (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here
Who was Subhash Chandra Bose?
For candidates taking history as an optional in the UPSC Mains exam, visit the UPSC History Optional Syllabus page to get a general idea about its exam pattern.
Subhash Chandra Bose’s Role in Indian Independence Struggle
Death of Subhash Chandra Bose
Choose the correct answer from the below-given options
A) Only Statements 1, 2, and 3 are true
B) Only statements 2, 3, and 4 are true
C) All the above-given statements are true
D) Only statements 1, 2, and 4 are true
Answer: D
Dr BR Ambedkar
Dr B R Ambedkar is known as the ‘Father of Indian Constitution.’ This article briefly shares very important and key points about Dr B.R. Ambedkar. It is an important component of Modern Indian History Syllabus for the UPSC Civil Services Exam. These notes are also useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams.
Dr B.R. Ambedkar – Key Points
Frequently Asked Questions related to Babasaheb Ambedkar
For what purpose did Dr Ambedkar go to England?
Dr Ambedkar received a PhD in economics and then went to England. He was admitted to the London School of Economics for a DSc and to Gray’s Inn to study for the Bar. However, short of money, Ambedkar returned to India and entered the Baroda state service.In 1920, Ambedkar returned to England. In 1923, Dr Ambedkar was called to the Bar and received his DSc. Dr Ambedkar then returned to India and set up a legal practice in Bombay. Dr Ambedkar became a champion of untouchable rights.
Who wrote the Indian Constitution?
The original Constitution of India was handwritten by Prem Behari Narain Raizada in a flowing italic style with beautiful calligraphy. The Constitution was published in Dehradun and photolithographed by the Survey of India. The original copies of the Indian Constitution, are kept in special helium-filled cases in the Library of the Parliament of India. It is the longest handwritten constitution of any country on earth. Each page is uniquely decorated by artists from Shantiniketan including Beohar Rammanohar Sinha and Nandalal Bose.
When was Hindu code passed?
The Hindu code bills were several laws passed in the 1950s that aimed to codify and reform Hindu personal law in India. Following India’s independence in 1947, the Indian National Congress government led by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru completed this codification and reform, a process started by the British Raj.
Quit India Movement - 1942
Mumbai’s Gowalia Tank Maidan also known as August Kranti Maidan is the place where the quit India movement was launched by Mahatma Gandhi. He along with other leaders gathered here on August 8 and 9, 1942.
The outcome of the movement was that Congress was declared an unlawful association and its offices all over the country were raided. The leaders were arrested and there rose a chaotic moment with this incident.
This article gives you the Quit India Movement summary, factors responsible for Quit India Movement and other notes relevant for UPSC and other government exams.
Candidates can also download Quit India Movement notes PDF from the link provided below.
Quit India Movement Facts
Causes of Quit India Movement – Why was it launched?
Read about the allied, axis and central powers from below:
Response to Quit India Movement
Importance of Quit India Movement – Significance/What it achieved?
Nehru Report - Recommendations & Responses
The Nehru Report had the primary motive of assigning Dominion status to India within the British Commonwealth.
The major components of the Nehru Report are:
This is an important topic for the UPSC Exam. This a part of NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC Civil Services Exam preparation. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like Bank PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
Background
Read about Indian National Congress Sessions & their Presidents in the linked article.
Recommendations of the report
Responses
Jinnah’s Fourteen Points
Indian National Congress Sessions - List of Indian National Congress Presidents
The Indian National Congress (INC) was established in 1885 and it grew to become one of the most important political parties in pre-independence India. The first Indian National Congress session was held in 1885. Knowing the dates of Indian National Congress sessions and their presidents is important for IAS Exam.
Starting as an organisation comprising only of the educated elite in India, it later became a party of commoners with prominent leaders like Lajpat Rai, Tilak, Gandhi, Nehru, Bose, etc. as its members.
Indian National Congress is a topic that comes under History subject for UPSC Prelims, UPSC Mains GS-1 and History Optional. This article will provide you with the list of Indian National Congress Presidents.
Indian National Congress Sessions
Indian National Congress founders: Allan Octavian Hume, Dadabhai Naoroji and Dinshaw Edulji Wacha. Indian National Congress was founded on 28 December 1885. The topic as it is is important for UPSC Mains too.
The list of Indian National Congress sessions with their Presidents are given in the table below:
Year |
Location |
President |
Importance |
1885 |
Bombay |
W C Bonnerjee |
1st session attended by 72 delegates |
1886 |
Calcutta |
Dadabhai Naoroji |
National Congress and National Conference |
1887 |
Madras |
Syed Badruddin Tyabji |
Appeal made to Muslims to join hands with other national leaders |
1888 |
Allahabad |
George Yule |
First English president |
1889 |
Bombay |
Sir William Wedderburn |
– |
1890 |
Calcutta |
Feroz Shah Mehta |
– |
1891 |
Nagpur |
P. Ananda Charlu |
– |
1892 |
Allahabad |
W C Bonnerjee |
– |
1893 |
Lahore |
Dadabhai Naoroji |
– |
1894 |
Madras |
Alfred Webb |
– |
1895 |
Poona |
Surendranath Banerjee |
– |
1896 |
Calcutta |
Rahimtullah M. Sayani |
National song ‘Vande Mataram’ sung for the first time |
1897 |
Amravati |
C. Sankaran Nair |
– |
1898 |
Madras |
Ananda Mohan Bose |
– |
1899 |
Lucknow |
Romesh Chandra Dutt |
– |
1900 |
Lahore |
N G Chandavarkar |
– |
1901 |
Calcutta |
Dinshaw E. Wacha |
– |
1902 |
Ahmedabad |
Surendranath Banerjee |
– |
1903 |
Madras |
Lal Mohan Ghosh |
– |
1904 |
Bombay |
Sir Henry Cotton |
– |
1905 |
Benares |
Gopal Krishna Gokhale |
Expressed resentment against the partition of Bengal |
1906 |
Calcutta |
Dadabhai Naoroji |
The word ‘Swaraj’ was mentioned for the first time |
1907 |
Surat |
Rash Behari Ghosh |
Party splits into extremists and moderates |
1908 |
Madras |
Rash Behari Ghosh |
Previous session continued |
1909 |
Lahore |
Madan Mohan Malaviya |
Indian Councils Act, 1909 |
1910 |
Allahabad |
Sir William Wedderburn |
– |
1911 |
Calcutta |
Bishan Narayan Dhar |
‘Jana Gana Mana’ sung for the first time |
1912 |
Bankipore (Patna) |
Raghunath Narasinha Mudholkar |
– |
1913 |
Karachi |
Syed Mohammed |
– |
1914 |
Madras |
Bhupendra Nath Basu |
– |
1915 |
Bombay |
Satyendra Prasanna Sinha |
– |
1916 |
Lucknow |
Ambica Charan Mazumdar |
Lucknow Pact – joint session with the Muslim League |
1917 |
Calcutta |
Annie Besant |
First woman president of the INC |
1918 |
Bombay And Delhi |
Syed Hasan Imam (Bombay) And Madan Mohan Malaviya (Delhi) |
Two sessions were held. First in Bombay in August/September Second in Delhi in December |
1919 |
Amritsar |
Motilal Nehru |
Jallianwala Bagh massacre strongly condemned |
1920 |
Nagpur |
C Vijayaraghavachariar |
– |
1921 |
Ahmedabad |
Hakim Ajmal Khan (acting President For C R Das) |
– |
1922 |
Gaya |
C R Das |
– |
1923 |
Kakinada |
Maulana Mohammad Ali, |
– |
1924 |
Belgaum |
M K Gandhi |
– |
1925 |
Kanpur |
Sarojini Naidu |
First Indian woman president |
1926 |
Guwahati |
S Srinivasa Iyengar |
– |
1927 |
Madras |
M A Ansari |
– |
1928 |
Calcutta |
Motilal Nehru |
All India Youth Congress formed |
1929 |
Lahore |
Jawaharlal Nehru |
Resolution for ‘Poorna Swaraj.’ Civil Disobedience movement for complete independence to be launched, 26 January to be observed as ‘Independence Day’. |
1930 |
No Session |
– |
– |
1931 |
Karachi |
Vallabhbhai Patel |
Resolution on fundamental rights and national economic progress. Gandhi-Irwin pact endorsed. Gandhi nominated to represent INC in the second round table conference |
1932 |
Delhi |
Amrit Ranchhorddas Seth |
– |
1933 |
Calcutta |
Malaviya Was Elected But Mrs Nellie Sengupta Presided |
– |
1934 |
Bombay |
Rajendra Prasad |
– |
1936 |
Lucknow |
Jawaharlal Nehru |
– |
1936 |
Faizpur |
Jawaharlal Nehru |
First rural session/first session to be held in a village |
1938 |
Haripura |
Subhas Chandra Bose |
National planning committee set up under Nehru |
1939 |
Tripuri |
Subhas Chandra Bose |
Bose was elected but had to resign since Gandhi supported Pattabhi Sitaramayya. Instead, Rajendra Prasad was appointed |
1940 |
Ramgarh |
Abul Kalam Azad |
– |
1941-45 |
– |
– |
No session because of arrest |
1946 |
Meerut |
Acharya Kripalani |
Last session before independence |
1948 |
Jaipur |
Pattabhi Sitaramayya |
First session after independence |
1950 |
Nashik |
Purushottam Das Tandon |
Resigned in 1951; Nehru became President |
1951 |
Delhi |
Jawaharlal Nehru |
– |
1953 |
Hyderabad |
Jawaharlal Nehru |
– |
1954 |
Kalyani |
Jawaharlal Nehru |
– |
1955 |
Avadi(madras) |
U. N. Dhebar |
– |
1956 |
Amritsar |
U. N. Dhebar |
– |
1958 |
Gauhati |
U. N. Dhebar |
– |
1959 |
Nagpur |
Indira Gandhi |
– |
1960 |
Bangalore |
Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy |
– |
1961 |
Bhavnagar |
Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy |
– |
1962 |
Bhubaneshwar |
Damodaran Sanjvayya |
– |
1963 |
Patna |
Damodaran Sanjvayya |
– |
1964 |
Bhubaneshwar |
K. Kamaraj |
– |
1965 |
Durgapur |
K. Kamaraj |
– |
C R Formula or Rajaji Formula (1944)
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam preparation. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like bank PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article will talk about C R Formula or the Rajaji Formula in details. C R Formula is an important topic for the IAS Exam. Download C R Formula notes PDF from the link provided below.
The August Offer
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC Civil Services Exam preparation. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
Candidates can also download the August Offer notes PDF from the link provided below.
Background
Response of the Indian leaders
Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference
The Wavell Plan was first presented at the Shimla Conference in 1945. It was named after Viceroy of India, Lord Wavell.
The Shimla Conference was convened in order to agree on the Wavell Plan for Indian self-government, which provided for separate representations on communal lines. Both the plan and the conference failed on account of the Muslim League and the Indian National Congress not coming to an agreement.
Background of the Wavell Plan and the Shimla Conference
The Second World War had caused many socio-economic problems in the British Empire, especially when it came to maintaining their overseas colonies. Thus the British Government saw it fit to grant India the freedom it had been demanding for so long. In addition, the Quit India Movement and an increase in revolutionary activity only made the British position in India tenuous at best.
Lord Wavell, who became the Viceroy in 1943, was charged with presenting a formula for the future government of India that would be acceptable to both the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League, allowing for a smooth transition of power. Lord Wavell was considered an apt person for this task as he had been the head of the Indian Army and thus had a better understanding of the Indian situation.
To know more about the Governor Generals of Bengal and India, visit the linked article.
What did the Wavell Plan Propose?
In May 1945 Wavell visited London and discussed his ideas with the British Government. These London talks resulted in the formulation of a definite plan of action which was officially made public simultaneously on 14 June 1945 by L.S. Amery, the Secretary of State for India. The Wavell Plan proposed the following:
To know more about the legislation passed in British India, click on the linked article.
What happened at the Shimla Conference?
Lord Wavell invited 21 political leaders including Mahatma Gandhi and M A Jinnah to Shimla, the summer capital of British India to discuss the Wavell Plan on June 25th, 1945.
The failure of the Wavell Plan and the Shimla Conference was a watershed moment for the Indian Independence struggle. All steps taken to prevent partition had been met with failure, meaning that it was inevitable.
Cabinet Mission 1946
Cabinet Mission was a high-powered mission sent in February 1946 to India by the Atlee Government (British Prime Minister.) The mission had three British cabinet members – Pethick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps, & and A.V. Alexander. The Cabinet Mission’s aim was to discuss the transfer of power from British to Indian leadership.
Important for IAS Exam, aspirants should read about Cabinet Mission from prelims and mains perspectives. This article will provide NCERT Notes on relevant information on the topic introducing what cabinet mission was and how did it fail after Congress’ denied abiding by its guidelines.
Download Cabinet Mission 1946 notes PDF from the link provided below.
What was Cabinet Mission & Who were its members?
Clement Atlee (British Prime Minister) decided to send a mission to India for the transfer of powers from the British Indian government to Indian leaders.
The mission had three members mentioned with their posts in the table below:
Cabinet Mission Members |
Cabinet Mission Members – Designation |
Pethick Lawrence |
Secretary of State for India |
Stafford Cripps |
President of the Board of Trade |
A.V. Alexander |
First Lord of Admiralty |
You should know that Lord Wavell was not a member of the Cabinet Mission but was involved.
Objectives of Cabinet Mission
Why did the Cabinet Mission fail?
The main reasons for the failure of the Cabinet Mission are given below:
The topic, ‘Cabinet Mission’ is an important one w.r.t. Modern Indian History syllabus and should be read for relevant details. Questions have been previously asked in the UPSC Prelims and candidates should practice previous year question papers after reading this topic.
History of Indian Constitution
India is a parliamentary democracy where the executive is responsible to the legislature. Many features of the Indian polity and constitution have their legacy in the British systems of administration that the colonial rulers had devised and employed in managing affairs in India.
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam will be useful for other competitive exams like bank PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
This article talks about the Historical Background of the Constitution of India and is an important topic for the IAS Exam.
Historical Evolution of the Indian Constitution
There are various layers in the background of the Indian Constitution:
These acts were in some way instrumental for the development of the Indian Constitution.
History of Indian Constitution – Regulating Act 1773
Read more about Regulating Act 1773 as an important act in the History of Indian Constitution, at the linked article.
History of Indian Constitution – Pitt’s India Act 1784
Read more about Pitt’s India Act 1784 in the linked article.
History of Indian Constitution – Charter Act 1813
Read more about the Charter Act 1813 in the linked article.
History of Indian Constitution – Charter Act 1833
Read more about the Charter Act 1833 in the linked article.
History of Indian Constitution – Charter Act 1853
Read more about the Charter Act 1853 in the linked article.
History of Indian Constitution – Government of India Act 1858
Read more about the Government of India Act 1858 in the linked article.
History of Indian Constitution – Indian Councils Act 1861
Read more about the Indian Councils Act 1861 in the linked article.
History of Indian Constitution – Indian Councils Act 1892
Read more about the Indian Councils Act 1892 in the linked article.
History of Indian Constitution – Indian Councils Act 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms)
Read more about Indian Councils Act 1909 in the linked article.
History of Indian Constitution – Government of India Act 1919 (Montague-Chelmsford Reforms)
Read more about the Government of India act 1919 in the linked article.
History of Indian Constitution – Government of India Act 1935
Read more about the Government of India Act 1935 in the linked article.
History of Indian Constitution – Indian Independence Act 1947
Conclusion
The topic, ‘Historical Background of Indian Constitution,’ or ‘History of Indian Constitution’ is important from the perspective of both history and polity subjects asked in the IAS Exam. Hence, aspirants should be well-versed with the historical and political evolution of the Indian Constitution.
Constituent Assembly of India
The idea of a constituent assembly was first proposed in 1934 by M.N. Roy. However, the actual constituent assembly was formed in 1946 on the basis of the cabinet mission plan.
This article will talk about the Constituent Assembly of India. Candidates can also download the notes PDF from the link provided below.
Background of the Constituent Assembly of India
The following table lists the trail of the development of the constituent assembly of India:
Constituent Assembly of India – Background |
Composition of Constituent Assembly
Key Facts Related to the Constituent Assembly of India
Constituent Assembly of India – Key Facts for UPSC Exam |
|
When did the constituent assembly first meet? |
The assembly first met on 9 December 1946 |
Was there any role of the Muslim League in the formation of the Constitution of India |
No, there was no role played by the Muslim League in the constituent assembly as it had boycotted this meeting citing their demand for partition |
What is ‘Objective Resolution’ concerned with the constituent assembly of India? |
Objective Resolution enshrined the aspirations and values of the constitution-makers. Under this, the people of India were guaranteed social, economic and political justice, equality and fundamental freedoms. This resolution was unanimously adopted on 22 January 1947 and the Preamble to the Constitution is based on it. |
When was Objective Resolution moved and by who? |
On 13 December 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru moved the ‘Objective Resolution’. |
When was National Flag of Union adopted? |
The National Flag of the Union was adopted on 22 July 1947 |
For how many days, the constituent assembly assembled to frame the constitution? |
The time is taken by the assembly to frame the constitution: 2 years, 11 months and 17 days. Money spent in framing the constitution: Rs.64 lakhs |
When was Jana Gana Mana adopted as our national anthem? |
On 24 January 1950, ‘Jana Gana Mana’ was adopted as the national anthem |
How many articles our final constitution has? |
The final document had 22 parts, 395 articles and 8 schedules. |
What was the total number of sessions constituent assembly had? |
The assembly had met for 11 sessions |
When was the draft of the Indian Constitution published? |
The draft was published in January 1948 and the country’s people were asked for their feedback and inputs within 8 months |
What is the date of the last session? |
The last session was held during 14 – 26 November 1949. The constitution was passed and adopted by the assembly on 26 November 1949 |
When did the constitution of India come into force? |
The constitution came into force on 26 January 1950 (which is celebrated as Republic Day) |
Committees of Constituent Assembly of India with their Chairmen
There were eight committees, mentioned below:
Committees of Constituent Assembly of India |
|
Drafting Committee |
Dr. B R Ambedkar |
Union Constitution Committee |
Jawaharlal Nehru |
Union Powers Committee |
Jawaharlal Nehru |
States Committee |
Jawaharlal Nehru |
Steering Committee |
Dr. Rajendra Prasad |
Rules of Procedure Committee |
Dr. Rajendra Prasad |
Provincial Constitution Committee |
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel |
Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities and Tribal and Excluded Areas: |
|
Criticism of the Constituent Assembly
Mountbatten Plan - Indian Independence Act 1947
Lord Mountbatten (India’s last viceroy) proposed a plan in May 1947 according to which provinces were to be declared independent successor states with the power to choose whether to join the constituent assembly or not.
It is an important topic from UPSC GS-I’s view. This article will provide you with NCERT notes on Mountbatten Plan for the UPSC Civil Services Exam preparation. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
Mountbatten Plan Background
Provisions of the Mountbatten Plan
On the midnight of 14th and 15th August 1947, the dominions of Pakistan and India respectively came into existence. Lord Mountbatten was appointed the first Governor-General of independent India and M .A. Jinnah became the Governor-General of Pakistan.
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan - Early Years, Partition, Arrest and Exile
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, also known as Bacha Khan, was a Pashtun independence activist who campaigned to end the rule of the British Raj in India. For his adherence to pacifism and close association with Mahatma Gandhi, he earned the nickname “Frontier Gandhi”,
He founded the Khudai Khidmatgar (“Servants of God”) movement in 1929. The success of the movement earned him and his supporters a harsh crackdown from the British Raj, suffering some of the worst repression of the Indian Independence Struggle.
This article will provide the relevant facts about Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan useful for GS-I.
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan – Early Years
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan was born on 6 February 1890 into a prosperous landowning Pashtun family from Utmanzai in the Peshawar Valley of British India.
At the age of 20 in 1910 Khan opened a mosque school in his home town. But the British authorities forcefully closed down his school in 1915, because they believed that it was a centre of anti-British activities. Their accusation was on the basis that Khan had joined the Pashtun independence movement of activist Haji Sahib of Turangazi, who himself was responsible for fomenting many anti-establishment activities against the British
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan – Khudai Khidmatgar
Initially, Bacha Khan’s goal was to wok towards the social upliftment of the Pashtuns as he had realised that they will remain backwards due to the lack of education and centuries of blood feuds between various Pashtun families. In time, he worked towards the formation of a united, independent, secular India. To achieve this end, he founded the Khudai Khidmatgar (“Servants of God”), commonly known as the “Red Shirts” (Surkh Pōsh), during the 1920s.
The Khudai Khidmatgar recruited over 100,000 members who became renowned in opposing and dying at the hands of the British authorities. Through strikes, political activities and non-violent protests, the organisation was able to achieve much political leverage and came to dominate the political landscape of the Northwest Frontier Province.
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan & The Partition
Khan strongly opposed the partition of India. He was assaulted for his liberal stance by some politicians as they believed he was anti-muslim. It resulted in him being hospitalized in Peshawar in 1946.
On June 21, 1947, in Bannu, a loya jirga (grand assembly in the Pashtun language) was held consisting of Bacha Khan, the Khudai Khidmatgars, members of the Provincial Assembly, and other tribal chiefs, just seven weeks before the partition. In this jirga, the Bannu Resolution was declared where it was stated that the Pashtun People be given a choice having an independent state of Pasthunistan composing all Pashtun territories of British India The British refused to even consider this request as it would seriously jeopardise the portion plan if areas were conceded based on ethnicity
The Indian National Congress party refused last-ditch attempts to avoid partition, like the Cabinet Mission plan and Gandhi’s suggestion to offer the position of Prime Minister to Jinnah. Because of this Bacha Khan felt a great sense of betrayal at the hands of both Pakistan and India. He cryptically stated to Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress party that “you have thrown us to the wolves”.
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan – Arrest and Exile
Abdul Ghaffar Khan took his oat of allegiance to the nation of Pakistan on February 23rd, 1948 at the first session of the Pakistan Constituent Assembly.
He promised to fully support the new government and he attempted to reconcile with his political rival, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, with who he had many disputes with in the past. The initial face-to-face meeting with Jinnah in Karachi went well but a second meeting never materialised, due to alleged insistence of the Chief Minister of Kyber Phaktunwa, Abdul Qayyum Khan Kashmiri. Abdul Qayyum insisted that Bacha Khan had the intention of assassinating Jinnah if given the chance. Most likely this was a charge based upon hearsay as Abdul Qayyum was resentful about the popularity of Bacha Khan amongst the Pashtun and sought to undermine it.
Bacha Khan formed Pakistan’s first national opposition party on 8 May 1948 – The Pakistan Azad Party. The opposition would be constructive in nature and non-communal in its ideology.
But suspicion of his allegiance continued to persist and he was placed under house arrest without any charge from 1948 to 1954
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan died in Peshawar while under house arrest in 1988. He was buried in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. His funeral was attended by 200,000 people and even included Afghan President Mohammad Najibullah. It was symbolic as it implied that the dream of Pashtun unification would outlive him
Such was his reputation among the Pashtuns that a cease-fire was announced in the Afghan Civil War to allow the funeral to take place.
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan’s Political Legacy
Bacha Khan’s political legacy is renowned amongst Pashtuns and those in the modern Republic of India as a leader who propagated the message of brotherhood and living on the principles of non-violence. Within Pakistan, however, the vast majority of society has questioned his true allegiance due to his association with the All India Congress over the Muslim League as well as his opposition to Jinnah. In particular, people have questioned where Bacha Khan’s patriotism rests following his insistence that he be buried in Afghanistan after his death and not Pakistan.
Multiple Choice Question
Consider the following statements
Choose the correct answer from the below given-options
A) Only statements 1, 2, and 3 are true.
B) Only statements 2, 3 and 5 are true.
C) None of the above given statements are true.
D) All the above given statements are true.
Answer: D
List of Viceroys in India
This article consists of the list of viceroys in India from 1858 to 1947. The title of viceroy was introduced post the battle of 1857. The British government witnessed the mismanagement by the East India company and therefore the government introduced a representative head titled as the Viceroy of India.
This is an important topic for the IAS exam.
Viceroys in India from 1858 to 1947
Viceroy |
Tenure |
Achievement |
Lord Canning |
1858-1862 |
|
Lord Elgin |
1862 – 1863 |
|
Lord Lawrence |
1864 – 1869 |
|
Lord Mayo |
1869 – 1872 |
|
Lord Northbrook |
1872 – 1876 |
|
Lord Lytton |
1876 – 1880 |
|
Lord Ripon |
1880 – 1884 |
|
Lord Dufferin |
1884 – 1888 |
|
Lord Lansdowne |
1888 – 1894 |
|
Lord Elgin II |
1894 – 1899 |
|
Lord Curzon |
1899 – 1905 |
|
Lord Minto II |
1905 – 1910 |
|
Lord Hardinge II |
1910 – 1916 |
|
Lord Chelmsford |
1916 – 1921 |
|
Lord Reading |
1921 – 1926 |
|
Lord Irwin |
1926 – 1931 |
|
Lord Willingdon |
1931 – 1936 |
|
Lord Linlithgow |
1936 – 1944 |
|
Lord Wavell |
1944 – 1947 |
|
Lord Mountbatten |
1947-48 |
Bhagat Singh
Bhagat Singh is an important figure in the history of the Indian freedom movement. He was a revolutionary leader who was executed by the British. In this article, you can read all about Bhagat Singh’s contributions and role in the revolutionary freedom movement, for the Indian history segment of the UPSC syllabus.
Background of Bhagat Singh
Bhagat Singh was born into a Sikh family in 1907 in Lyallpur District, present-day Pakistan.
Bhagat Singh’s Revolutionary Activities/Contributions to Freedom Struggle
Although there have been many leaders from the revolutionary mould, Bhagat Singh’s name is always first quoted when talking about revolutionary freedom fighters of India.
Bhagat Singh Execution
Bhagat Singh was arrested and charged in the Saunders murder case, along with Rajguru, Sukhdev and others.
Bhagat Singh Quotes
Bhagat Singh’s many quotes are famous and some of them can be used in the UPSC Mains exam.
Indian National Army (INA)
The Indian National Army (Also known as the Azad Hind Fauj) was an armed force formed by Indian Nationalists in 1942, through the patronage of the Imperial Japanese Army, to secure the Independence of India.
This article will further highlight the details of the Azad Hind Fauj within the context of the IAS Exam.
Aspirants can download the Indian National Army Notes PDF given below for convenience in the exam preparation-
Background of the Indian National Army
Following the outbreak of World War II, Japan invaded South East Asia. At the time 70,000 troops were stationed in the region, most of them along the Malayan coast. Japan conducted a lightning campaign which culminated in the fall of the Malayan peninsula and Singapore in 1942. In the Singapore campaign alone, 45,000 Indian prisoners of war were captured. It was from these prisoners of war that the Japnese decided to create an auxiliary army which would fight against the British.
The first INA was formed under Mohan Singh, a former officer of the British Indian Army captured during the Malay campaign. Conditions in the prisoner of war camps, as well as resentment against the British in general, saw many prisoners of war volunteer join the Indian National Army
The initiative received considerable support from the Imperial Japanese Army and from the ethnic Indian population of South-East Asia. However, disagreements between Mohan Singh and Japanese Army Command regarding the autonomy of the Indian National Army led to the disbandment of the first INA in December 1942
For those candidates who have taken History as an optional in the UPSC Mains Exam, the UPSC History Syllabus page will be of immense use.
Subash Chandra Bose and the second INA
Although Mohan Singh had angered the Japanese Army Command through his actions, they relented to form a second Indian National Army. Mohan Singh himself recommended that Subash Chandra Bose for the leadership role. His reputation as a committed nationalist was known to both the Indian diaspora of South East Asia and the Imperial Japanese Army. As such, they were more open to the idea of a nationalist army led by Subash Chandra Bose. The activities of Subash Chandra Bose in India had forced the British authorities to imprison him, but he escaped and reached Berlin in 1941.
Although the German leadership were sympathetic to his cause, logistic problems prevented them from granting any support to his quest for raising an army to fight the British. However, the Japanese were ready to support him and upon their personal invitation, Subash Chandra Bose arrived in Singapore in July 1943 to take command of what would be known as the second Indian National Army, now known by its alternative name as the Azad Hind Fauj.
Operations of the Azad Hind Fauj
After Subash Chandra Bose took command of the Azad Hind Fauj, there was a swell of volunteers looking to join the INA. Although Subash Chandra Bose agreed for the INA to remain subordinate to the Japanese Army, he saw it as a necessary sacrifice towards the fulfilment of the ultimate goal of freeing India from the British Empire. The Azad Hind Fauj participated in operation U-Go, the 1944 Japanese campaign towards British India. Although the INA saw initial success during the early phases of the operation, they were forced to withdraw during the battle of Imphal and battle of Kohima (Fought on April 4th, 1944) which saw the disastrous defeat for the Japanese Army at the hands of the British.
The INA lost a substantial number of men and materiel in this retreat. A number of units were disbanded or used to feed into new divisions of the now declining Japanese Army
Following the Japanese defeat in World War 2, most of the members of the INA were captured by the British. Subash Chandra Bose himself eluded capture and was reported to have died in a plane crash near Taiwan in September 1945.
Fate after World War 2
The surviving members of the INA were to be tried by the British Colonial government for treason. The trials would take place at the Red Fort. However, their decision to make the Red Fort trials public proved to be a grave miscalculation on the part of the British as it led to a new wave of nationalism unseen during the entirety of the Independence Struggle. The Indian population saw them as patriots fighting for independence rather than traitors to an empire they never wanted to fight for.
The progress of the trial also led to mutiny within the British Indian Army, most notable being the mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy. although the mutiny was quickly put down, the British realised that they were effectively losing the support of the very institution that kept them in power for so long – the army.
Coupled with the launching of the Quit India Movement, the British sought to hasten the independence of India which was the ultimate aim of the Azad Hind Fauj at the very beginning of its inception.
It can be safely said that even in defeat, did the Indian National Army win against its colonial oppressors.
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