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Important points to remember in Indus Valley civilization for Prelims

Major Cities

Social features

Religious Facts

Economic facts

Indus Valley Civilization Facts

Vedic Civilization: Ancient History

Indo-Aryan Migration

Two phases of the Vedic Period

Social structure

Economic structure

Religion

Later Vedic Period or Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000 BC – 600 BC)

 

 

Important points to remember in Indus Valley civilization for Prelims

The Indus Valley Civilization was spread from present-day North-East Afghanistan to Pakistan and North-West India. This civilization flourished in the river basins of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and the Indus. Indus valley civilization is one of the four oldest civilizations in the world. It is also known as Harappan Civilization and is well-known for its organized planning based on the grid system.       

 

Here we are giving the important points to be remembered for UPSC IAS Prelims examination.
Important facts

1. John Marshall was the first researcher to use the term, ‘Indus Valley Civilization’.
2. Indus Valley Civilization spread from the year 2500 – 1750 BC according to radio-carbon dating.
3. The most distinctive feature of the Harappan Civilization was its urbanization.
4. Moreover, sheep and goats, dogs, humped cattle buffalo, and elephant were domesticated in Indus Valley Civilization.
5. The capital cities are Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
6. The port cities are Sutkagendor, Balakot, Lothal, Allahdino, and Kuntasi.

The Indus valley people were well-acquainted with the use both of cotton and wool. .        BACK

 

Major Cities
Mohenjodaro (Sind)

1. It is located on the right bank of the Indus.

Kalibangan (Rajasthan)

1. It was on the banks of the river Ghaggar river

Chanhudaro

1. It lies on the left bank of the Indus in the south of Mohenjodaro.

Lothal

1. It is located at the head of the Gulf of Cambay.

Surkotada (Gujarat)

1. It is at the head of the Rann of Kutch.

Banawali (Haryana)

1. It was situated on the banks of the now extinct Sarasvati

Dholavira (Gujarat)

1. It excavated is in the Kutch district

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Social features

1. Indus valley civilization is the first urbanization in India
2. It has well-planned drainage system, grid pattern and town planning
3. They have possessed equality in society

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 Religious Facts

1. Matridevi or Shakti is the Mother goddess
2. Yoni worship and Nature worship existed.
3. They worshiped trees like Peepal
4. They also worshiped Fire worship called Havan Kund.
5. Pashupati Mahadeva is known as the lord of Animals
6. The people of Indus Valley Civilization worshiped Animal worship like Unicorn and ox.

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Economic facts

1. Indus valley civilization is based on agriculture
2. Trade and commerce flourished in this period.
3. A dockyard has been found at Lothal.
4. There were export and import.
5. Production of cotton was there
6. 16 was the unit of measurement
7. Weights and measures of truth existed in Harappan culture was seen at Lothal.
8. The weights were made of limestone, steatite, etc. and were usually cubical in shape.

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Indus Valley Civilization Facts

The Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and the Indus Valley Civilization, the four great civilizations of the ancient world, the first three (Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China) have been broadly studied and well-known to everyone. But the fourth and of equal importance, the much more sophisticated Indus Valley Civilization that flourished along the flood plains of Indus and Gaggar-Hakra is lost to human memory and till date remains puzzling.
It was in the 20th century, the lost and forgotten Indus Valley Civilization was rediscovered and acknowledged and given equal importance with the other three civilizations (Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China).
Here we bring some interesting facts about Indus Valley Civilization which would important for UPSC Civil Services IAS Prelims Exam.
Fact# 1: Indus Valley Civilization was the largest among the other four civilizations of the world (Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China)

1. The Indus Valley Civilization was spread over an area of 1,260,000 sq. km over modern-India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan
2. The civilization extended from Ghaggar-Hakra Valley in the east to Markran coast of Baluchistan in the west, from Afghanistan in the northeastern to Daimabad in Maharashtra in the south.

Fact# 2: The Population of Indus Valley Civilization was over 5 million

1. The civilization had over 5 million inhabitants.
2. Most of the inhabitants of the civilization were artisans and traders.

Fact# 3: Nearly 1056 cities have been discovered

• 1056 Harappan cities and settlements have been found
• of which 96 have been excavated
• Most of the settlements are mostly located in the broad region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries.
• The major urban centers are: Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholaviral, Ganeriawala and Rakhigarhi.

Fact# 4: Majority of the population lived in villages and it is not evident

1. Majority of the population of Indus Valley Civilization lived in villages
2. it is not evident as the villages may have been constructed of destructible materials like mud or timber.
3. Hence, it is difficult to find out the lifestyle and culture in these villages which have been lost over a period of time without any trace.

Fact# 5: Scholars and archaeologists are uncertain about the naming

1. Since the first settlement was discovered along the banks of river Indus, the archaeologists named the civilization as Indus Valley Civilization. But on contrary only around 100 sites have been found in the Indus Valley, while over 500 sites are found along the Gaggar-Hakra River (The present day Saraswati River).
2. Most of the archaeologists prefer  to call them as ‘Indus-Saraswati Civilization’ based on the two river systems, while other prefer to name them as Harappan Civilisation as the first settlement was discovered in this city (Harappa).

And, according to some archaeologists, the sites along the Gaggar-Hakra River are preserved as they lie in the uninhabited desert.

The second in a series of articles, this article continues the discussion on the great Indus Valley Civilization, whose existence was not even known until the twentieth century. It should be given its rightful place among the other three great ancient civilizations namely, the Mesopotamian, Egyptian and the Chinese civilizations.
 
Fact# 6: The Indus Valley Civilization could be the Meluhha mentioned by Mesopotamian scribes

1. The Mesopotamian (Sumerian) scribes in the Middle Bronze Age refer frequently to a place they call Meluhha. Meluhha was a prominent trading partner of the Sumerians and they imported timber and ebony in high volumes.
2. Sesame oil and luxury items like lapis lazuli were also imported from Meluhha, which was in all probability, the Indus Valley Civilization.

Fact# 7: Archaeologists first thought that they had stumbled upon cities of children

1. When the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were first discovered, a large number of toys including dice, whistles and marbles were found.
2. This led the archaeologists to think that the majority of the inhabitants of those cities were children!

 
Fact# 8: The British used 4000-year old bricks from the Indus Valley Civilization to lay down 93 miles of railway track

1. In 1856, when the British were building the East Indian Railway Company line from Karachi to Lahore, they faced a shortage of bricks.
2. They took bricks from the nearby village of Harappa where they found bricks from a ‘ruined city’.
3. These 4000-year old bricks were used for the railway track stretching to 93 miles (150 km).

 
Fact# 9: World’s first planned cities were found in the Indus Valley Civilization

1. The cities of the civilization were planned in grid patterns with streets crossing at right angles.
2. These marvels of urban planning were thousands of years older than the period of Hippodamus of Miletus, considered the ‘father of European urban planning’.

Fact# 10: The cities were not chaotic despite being densely populated

1. The Indus Valley Civilization was a highly sophisticated civilization with a much organised way of living.
2. Despite being densely populated, the cities were not chaotic, unlike contemporary cities of Mesopotamia or Egypt.

The Indus Valley Civilization, also known as Harappan Civilization was truly a great one in terms of the area and also the level of sophistication seen in their cities and towns. It is also an important subject of study for historians, indologists and of course, UPSC IAS aspirants. We bring you a series of articles on the Indus Valley Civilization listing out a few must-know facts about it.  This article is the third in the series.
 
Fact# 11: They had advanced sanitation systems

1. People of the Indus Valley Civilization knew about and implemented channelling of water and the disposal of waste water way before any other ancient civilization did.
2. Even the Romans built aqueducts thousands of years later.

 
Fact# 12: The largest city was Mohenjo-Daro

1. Mohenjo-Daro measuring an area of about 300 hectares was the largest city.
2. Mohenjo-Daro might have had a 40000-strong population.
3. Allahdino was the smallest site in the Indus Valley Civilization.

 
Fact# 13: The oldest Indus Valley settlement was established around 7000 B.C.

1. Mehrgarh is the oldest known settlement dating back to around 7000 B.C.
2. It began during the Pre-Harappan period.
3. Mehrgarh was a farming village.

 
Fact# 14: The cities and towns of the Indus Valley Civilization were standardised

1. Apart from being well-planned and having excellent drainage systems, the Harappan cities and towns were also standardised.
2. Almost all the places excavated are seen as having a similar structure and pattern.
3. Even the bricks of the houses had similar dimensions!

 
Fact# 15: Harappan towns had an interesting rectangular grid pattern

1. The Indus Valley cities and towns had a rectangular grid pattern.
2. The main streets were along the North-South direction and the secondary streets were along the East-West direction.
3. The streets intersected at right angles. This precise pattern is believed to be owing to religious or astronomical beliefs.

 
Continuing with the series on the great Indus Valley Civilization, we bring you some interesting facts about it. This is important not only from a historic point of view, but also from the UPSC IAS exam viewpoint. These static facts can increase your understanding and appreciation of this ancient civilization and of course, aid you in your IAS prelims exam.
 
Fact# 16: No congestion on the streets

1. The streets found in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were as wide as 10.5 m.
2. The smaller roads were at least 1.5 m wide.
3. Archaeologists believe that the wide streets point out to market activities along them.

 
Fact# 17: The streets in Harappa were paved

1. Harappan streets were paved with burnt bricks to facilitate the easy movement of ox carts.
2. The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization had channels running along the streets for the disposal of drainage water.

 
Fact# 18: There were distinct neighbourhoods in the cities

1. The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization could be divided into distinct neighbourhoods.
2. Each neighbourhood had inhabitants who were engaged in a particular profession.

 
Fact# 19: The city of Mohenjo-Daro was built at least 9 times

• Many of the cities of this civilization were destroyed several times by flood, deposition of silts, etc.
1. Each time they were rebuilt.
2. What is amazing is that every time they rebuilt the cities, they employed the same grid pattern.
3. Mohenjo-Daro was constructed nine times and each time on top of the earlier grid.
4. This shows the sophistication in their urban planning.

 
Fact# 20: Harappa had very advanced granaries

1. The granaries in Harappa used advanced technology that was seen in Rome 2800 years later.
2. The sites also had citadels, bathing platforms and burial grounds.

Fact# 21: The Indus Valley Civilization used standard burnt bricks everywhere

1. There were two types of bricks used in the Mature Harappa Period. One measured 7 X 14 X 28 cm and the other measured 10 X 20 X 40 cm in size.
2. The bigger bricks were used to construct public buildings.
3. The smaller bricks were used to build houses.
4. Both types of bricks followed the 1:2:4 ratio.

 
Fact# 22: Ratio 1:2:4 all the way

1. The ratio 1:2:4 was not limited to bricks, but to all aspects.
2. This ratio was followed in the houses, public structures, neighbourhood regions and even the city.
3. Historians do not know whether this standardization was owing to religious beliefs or just a convention followed by the builders.
4.  

Along with the Mesopotamian, Egyptian and the Chinese civilizations, the Indus Valley Civilization, also known as Harappan Civilization, was one of the four great ancient civilizations. It was a truly sophisticated one quite advanced and ahead of its contemporaries in its way of life. We bring you a series of articles on must-know facts about the Indus Valley Civilization. This is the fifth edition in the series which will be useful for the UPSC prelims examination.
 
Fact# 23: Harappan houses were multi-storied buildings

1. So advanced was their architecture and masonry that Harappa had two and three-storied houses.
2. These spacious houses had central courtyards and accessible flat terraces too.

 
Fact# 24: The Indus Valley houses could keep off dust and noise

1. None of the houses in the Indus Valley had windows facing the main streets.
2. The houses had only one door.
3. All the windows and the door of the houses would open into the central courtyard.
4. Thus, they were strategically designed to avoid noise and dust.

 
Fact# 25: Houses with attached bathrooms

1. Indus Valley civilization was perhaps the first in the world to have houses with attached bathrooms.
2. They also had access to running water.
3. In addition, they had toilets with advanced drainage facilities.

 
Fact# 26: The world’s first rainwater harvesting was here

1. The Harappan civilization had systems to store rainwater.
2. They had complex and efficient water management systems.
3. The world’s public water tank, named The Great Bath was found here.
4. The city of Mohenjo-Daro also had a large water management system with 80 public toilets and about 700 wells.
5. The wells were strategically placed to supply water to every locality.

 
Fact# 27: Every city had its own Great Bath

1. Every city in the civilization had at least one Great Bath.
2. It is believed that they might have had a religious purpose.

Along with the Mesopotamian, Egyptian and the Chinese civilizations, the Indus Valley Civilization, also known as Harappan Civilization, was one of the four great ancient civilizations. It was a truly sophisticated one quite advanced and ahead of its contemporaries in its way of life. We bring you a series of articles on must-know facts about the Indus Valley Civilization for your IAS exam preparation. Read on for the sixth article in the series.
 
Fact# 28: Hygiene was top priority

1. The people of the Indus Valley Civilization led a very hygienic, clean and healthy life.
2. The excavations reveal this fact.
3. The large number of public baths, the excellent water management system, running water in every house, neat drainage systems and the underground wastewater systems all point out to the importance of hygiene in Harappan life.

 
Fact# 29: Dustbins along the streets

1. Even in those ancient times, the Indus Valley Civilization was way ahead of its time in terms of civic sense.
2. There were dustbins placed along the streets in Mohenjo-Daro!
3. These were brick containers especially for garbage disposal.

 
Fact# 30: Separate channels for stormwater and wastewater

1. So advanced was their water management system that they had separate channels lining the Harappan streets for wastewater and storm water (rainwater).
2. The wastewater drains were underground, and had opening terracotta lids for cleaning purposes!

 
Fact# 31: Indus Valley had large-scale maritime trade relations with other civilizations

1. Many port-cities have been unearthed which proves the existence of large-scale maritime trade relations with other civilizations.
2. Lothal could be the world’s first dockyard.
3. Other ports include Allahdin, Suktagendor and Balakot.

 
Fact# 32: The Harappan cities had water-reservoirs

1. At the Harappan city of Dholavira, 16 water reservoirs have been found.
2. These reservoirs serve the twin purposes of protecting the city from floods, and ensuring water supply throughout the year, even during dry season.
3. They built dams that could control the flow of water and be stored in huge reservoirs.

 
Fact# 33: The Indus Valley Civilization was good in metallurgy

1. They produced metal products including those in lead, copper, bronze and tin.
2. They exported these products.
3. They knew the technique of smelting copper with other metals.
4. Gold necklaces smaller than 0.25 mm in diameter have been excavated at Lothal. Other metal artefacts have been found in Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa and Rangpur.
5. Harappan copper implements were made by the method of casting.
6. Bronze vessels were made from a single sheet which was hammered.
7. Metal alloying technology was well-developed in the Indus Valley Civilization.

Continuing with the series on the great Indus Valley Civilization, we bring you some interesting facts about it. This is important not only from a historic point of view, but also from the UPSC IAS exam viewpoint. These static facts can increase your understanding and appreciation of this ancient civilization and of course, aid you in your IASprelims exam.

Fact# 34: The Indus Valley Civilization had precise measurement systems

1. Stone cubes have been excavated from the sites of this civilization. Archaeologists believe them to be weights for measurement.
2. These weights increase in a ratio of 5:2:1. They had weights of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 units.
3. They are different from the system of measurement of Egypt and Mesopotamia of that time, so it can be concluded that this system was developed indigenously.
4. The smallest division on a marking on an ivory scale was around 1.704 mm found in Lothal, Gujarat. This is the smallest recorded division found from the Bronze Age.

 
Fact# 35: They even tested the purity of gold by the touchstone technique

1. A touchstone has been recovered from Banawali, Haryana.
2. This touchstone has streaks of gold in it indicating that it was probably used to assay the purity of gold.
3. This technique is used in some parts of the country to this day.

 
Fact# 36: The Indus Valley Civilization even had dentists among them

1. In 2006, Nature journal declared that the first evidence of drilling of the human teeth in a live person was found in Mehrgarh, present Pakistan.
2. This discovery was done in 2001 when eleven drilled molar crowns were unearthed from a Neolithic grave in Mehrgarh dating between 5500 B.C. and 7000 B.C.
3. This remarkable discovery shows that people of the Indus Valley Civilization had knowledge of proto-dentistry.

 
Fact# 37: They were the world’s earliest cotton cultivators

1. The earliest traces of cotton in the world were found here. The earliest evidence for the use of cotton was found in Mehrgarh dating back to the sixth millennium B.C.
2. The Indus Valley farmers were the first ones to spin and weave cotton.
3. Cotton was also one of the export items.

 
Fact# 38: They had the world’s first buttons

1. The world’s first buttons were found here dating back to 2800 – 2600 B.C.
2. Buttons were made out of seashells and some of them had holes pierced in them for them to be attached to clothes with threads.
3. Buttons in the Indus Valley were used more for their ornamental value rather than for utility.
4.  

Along with the Chinese, Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations, the Indus Valley Civilization was one of the great ancient civilizations of the world. It was a Bronze Age civilization in India and was highly advanced in terms of its urban development and living style of the people. This is an important topic in ancient history for the UPSC IAS exam. We bring you a series of articles on this great civilization. This is the eighth article in this interesting series.
 
Fact# 39: The world’s oldest signboard can be found here

1. A board with stone symbols/letters over 30 cm in height in a wooden frame was discovered at Dholavira in 1999.
2. Archaeologists believe this was the world’s first signboard!
3. It is thought to have been placed at the façade of the northern gate of the city’s citadel.

 
Fact# 40: The Indus Valley people were playful

1. Among the artefacts that have been found in sites like Mohenjo-Daro are toys and games.
2. They have unearthed cubical dice having one to six holes (quite like the ones we have today)!
3. Other toys include clay figures of bullock carts, spinning tops, marbles, miniature pots and utensils, etc.

Fact# 41: They had exquisite art and craft

1. Art and craft during the Indus Valley period were highly sophisticated.
2. Their artefacts display a high level of achievement in terms of aesthetic value and the technique used.
3. Their ware includes terracotta, bronze, copper and other metals.
4. They were also experts in bead-making.
5. This is a very important discovery because it shows the expertise of the Indus Valley civilization in metal blending and casting. It also signifies the importance of dance as a form of entertainment in those times.
6. Archaeologist Sir John Marshall (who discovered the Indus Valley Civilization in a way) has remarked, “When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were prehistoric…”
7. These wonderful pieces of art, made using the lost-wax casting process, dated thousands of years before the Greeks.

Fact# 42: Cause of decline: Unknown

1. Historians are not sure what led to the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.
2. Experts are now sure that it wasn’t invasion, disease or any other calamity that caused their decline.
3. The cities and settlements started declining gradually and they seemed to have been abandoned by the inhabitants who might have migrated to greener pastures.
4. It is believed that the gradual drying up of the Saraswati River might have led to this.
5. The civilization did not come to an abrupt end but declined gradually and got assimilated into other cultures.

 
Fact# 43: Over 4000 seals have been found from the sites

1. These seals are small, rectangular stone slabs with inscriptions on them.
2. They also have images of animals and other figures on them.
3. The use of these seals is uncertain.

Continuing with the series on the great Indus Valley Civilization, we bring you some interesting facts about it. This is important not only from a historic point of view, but also from the UPSC IAS exam viewpoint. These static facts can increase your understanding and appreciation of this ancient civilization and of course, aid you in your IAS prelims exam.
 
Fact# 44: The Indus Valley Script has still not been deciphered

1. One of the reasons we don’t know much about this civilization is that their script has not yet been deciphered.
2. Around 400 different symbols have been identified inscribed in objects.
3. They appear in strings of between 3 and 20.
4. Historians believe they are probably names and don’t have any other meaning.

 
Fact# 45: No depiction of any king or ruler

1. Despite having an organised way of life, there is no depiction or evidence of any ruler or any governing system for the Harappan civilization.
2. The closest depiction to any kind of a central figure is a terracotta sculpture believed to be that of a priest-king.

Fact# 46: No temples in the Indus Valley Civilization

1. Archaeologists haven’t found any structure resembling a temple or a palace or any monument.
2. In fact, most other contemporary civilizations have some central monuments.
3. The absence of any palace or temple despite structures like granaries and public baths led historians to believe that the Indus Valley society was an egalitarian one.

 
Fact# 47: No evidence of warfare

• Although some weapons like spears, knives and arrow-heads have been excavated from the sites, there is no evidence of warfare from the Indus Valley Civilization.
• It is concluded that they were in general a peace-loving people.
1. It is also possible that this was because they had no natural enemies and the other settlements had good trade relations with them.

 
Fact# 48: There is no information about their political structure or religious beliefs

1. Not much is known about their political or religious life.
2. It is believed that they might have worshipped a Mother Goddess in addition to other male and female deities.

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Vedic Civilization: Ancient History

 

The Vedic Age was between 1500 BC and 600 BC. This is the next major civilization that occurred in ancient India after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization by 1400 BC. The Vedas were composed in this period and this gives this age the name. The Vedas are also the chief source of information about this era. The Vedic Age started with the coming of the Aryans or Indo-Aryans.

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Indo-Aryan Migration

1. The Aryans were a semi-nomadic pastoral people.
2. The original homeland of the Aryans is a matter of controversy with different experts touting different places.
3. Some say they originated from the area around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia (Max Muller), while others think they originated from the Russian Steppes. Bal Gangadhar Tilak was of the opinion that the Aryans came from the arctic region.
4. The Vedic Age started with the Aryan occupation of the Indo-Gangetic Plains.
5. Meaning of the word Arya: Noble.
6. They spoke Sanskrit, an Indo-European language.
7. They led a rural, semi-nomadic life as compared to the Indus Valley people who were urbanised.
8. It is believed that they entered India through the Khyber Pass.

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Two phases of the Vedic Period
Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 BC – 1000 BC)
Initially the Aryans lived in the land known as “Sapta Sindhu” (Land of the Seven Rivers). These seven rivers were: Sindhu (Indus), Vipash (Beas), Vitasta (Jhelum), Parushni (Ravi), Asikni (Chenab), Shutudri (Satluj) and Saraswati.
Political structure:

1. Monarchical form of government with a king known as Rajan.
2. Patriarchal families. Jana was the largest social unit in Rig Vedic times.
3. Social grouping: kula (family) – grama – visu – jana.
4. Tribal assemblies were called Sabhas and Samitis. Examples of tribal kingdoms: Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus.

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Social structure:

1. Women enjoyed respectable position. They were allowed to take part in Sabhas and Samitis. There were women poets too (Apala, Lopamudra, Viswavara and Ghosa).
2. Cattle especially cows became very important.
3. Monogamy was practiced but polygamy was observed among royalty and noble families.
4. There was no child marriage.
5. Social distinctions existed but were not rigid and hereditary.

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Economic structure:

1. They were a pastoral and cattle-rearing people.
2. They indulged in agriculture.
3. Products made out of copper, iron and bronze were in use.
4. They had horse chariots.
5. Rivers were used for transport.
6. Cotton and woollen fabrics were spun and used.
7. Initially trade was conducted through the barter system but later on coins called ‘nishka’ were in use.

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Religion:

1. They worshipped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain, thunder, etc. by personifying them into deities.
2. Indra (thunder) was the most important deity. Other deities were Prithvi (earth), Agni (fire), Varuna (rain) and Vayu (wind).
3. Female deities were Ushas and Aditi.
4. There were no temples and no idol worship.

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Later Vedic Period or Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000 BC – 600 BC)
During this time, the Aryans moved eastwards and occupied western and eastern UP (Kosala) and Bihar.
Political structure:

1. Kingdoms like Mahajanapadas were formed by amalgamating smaller kingdoms.
2. King’s power increased and various sacrifices were performed by him to enhance his position.
3. Sacrifices were Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Vajapeya (chariot race) and Ashwamedha (horse sacrifice).
4. The Sabhas and Samitis diminished in importance.

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Social structure:

1. The Varna system of social distinction became more distinct. This became less based on occupation and more hereditary.
2. The four divisions of society in decreasing social ranking were: Brahmanas (priests), Kshatriyas (rulers), Vaishyas (agriculturists, traders and artisans), and Shudras (servers of the upper three classes).
3. Women were not permitted to attend public assemblies like Sabhas and Samitis. Their position in society lowered.
4. Child marriages became common.
5. Sub-castes based on occupation also emerged. Gotras were institutionalised.

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Economic structure:

1. Agriculture was the chief occupation.
2. Industrial work like metal work, pottery and carpentry work also was there.
3. There was foreign trade also with Babylon.

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Religion:

1. Prajapati (creator) and Vishnu (preserver) became important gods.
2. Indra and Agni lost their significance.
3. Importance of prayers diminished and rituals and sacrifices became more elaborate.
4. The priestly class became very powerful and they dictated the rules of the rites and rituals. Because of this orthodoxy, Buddhism and Jainism emerged towards the end of this period.

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Vedic Literature

1. The word ‘Veda’ originated from the root ‘vid’ which means spiritual knowledge/subject of knowledge/means of acquiring knowledge.
2. The four Vedas are: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.
3. Rig Veda was composed during the Early Vedic Age. The other three were written in the Later Vedic Age.
4. Rig Veda – this is the oldest religious text in the world. It contains 1028 hymns and is classified into 10 mandalas.
5. Yajur Veda – this deals with the ways to perform rituals.
6. Sama Veda – deals with music. Indian music is said to be originated from Sama Veda.
7. Atharva Veda – contains spells and magical formula.
8. Other Vedic texts were the Brahmanas (explains the meaning of sacrifices); Upanishads (also called Vedantas, 108 in number, source of Indian philosophy); and Aranyakas (books of instructions).
9. The great Indian epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana were also composed during this period.

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Buddhist Councils And Important Texts [Art And Culture]

NCERT notes on important topics for the IAS aspirants. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about the spread of Buddhism in ancient India, Buddhist Councils and texts.


Buddhist Councils
Four Buddhist Councils were held under different kings.

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First Buddhist Council

1. Conducted under the patronage of King Ajatasatru of Haryanka dynasty.
2. It was held in 483 BC just after Buddha’s demise.
3. It was held at Sattapani caves (Sattaparnaguha) in Rajagriha.
4. The monk who presided over the first council was Mahakassapa.
5. Main objective was to preserve the Buddha’s teachings.
6. At this council, Ananda composed the Suttapitaka (Buddha’s Teachings) and Mahakassapa composed the Vinaypitaka (monastic code).

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Second Buddhist Council

1. Conducted under the patronage of King Kalasoka of Sisunaga dynasty.
2. It was held in 383 BC, i.e., hundred years after the Buddha’s death.
3. It was held at Vaishali.
4. Sabakami presided over the council.
5. Main objective was to discuss ten disputed points under the Vinaypitaka.
6. The first major split happened here – two groups that would later evolve into Theravada and Mahayana. The first group was called Thera (meaning Elder in Pali). They wanted to preserve the teachings of Buddha in the original spirit. The other group called Mahasanghika (Great Community) interpreted the Buddha’s teachings more liberally.

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Third Buddhist Council

1. Conducted under the patronage of Emperor Ashoka of Maurya dynasty.
2. It was held in 250 BC at Pataliputra.
3. The council was presided over by Mogaliputta Tissa.
4. Main objective was to purify Buddhism from opportunistic factions and corruption in the Sangha.
5. The Abhidhamma Pitaka was composed here making the almost completion of the modern Pali Tipitaka.
6. Buddhist missionaries were sent to other countries.
7. Buddhism preached by Emperor Ashoka was Hinayana.

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Fourth Buddhist Council

1. Conducted under the patronage of King Kanishka of Kushan dynasty.
2. It was held in the 1st century AD at Kundalvana in Kashmir.
3. Vasumitra and Ashvaghosha presided over this council
4. All deliberations were conducted in Sanskrit.
5. Here, Abhidhamma texts were translated from Prakrit to Sanskrit.
6. This council resulted in the division of Buddhism into two sects namely, Mahayana (the Greater Vehicle) and Hinayana (the Lesser Vehicle).
7. Mahayana sect believed in idol worship, rituals and Boddhisattvas. They regarded the Buddha as God. Hinayana continued the original teachings and practices of the Buddha. They adhere to the scriptures written in Pali while the Mahayana includes Sanskrit scriptures as well.

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Buddhist Texts

1. The most important sources of Buddhism are the Tripitakas / Tipitakas written in Pali language. They are:
1. Sutta Pitaka
2. Vinaya Pitaka
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka
1. Dhammapada: a part of the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka. It contains a collection of the sayings of the Buddha in verse form.
2. Milinda Panha: Literal meaning in Pali – Questions of Milinda. It was written around 100 BC. It contains a dialogue between the Indo-Greek King Menander I or Milinda of Bactria and sage Nagasena where Milinda asks questions on Buddhism to the sage.
3. Buddhacharita: it is an epic poem composed in Sanskrit by Ashvaghosha in early 2nd century AD. It is about the life of the Buddha.

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Causes of the Spread of Buddhism

1. Buddha’s magnetic personality.
2. He taught in Pali which the masses understood as opposed to Sanskrit.
3. He admitted people into the Sangha irrespective of caste distinctions.
4. Initial Sanghas were democratic and disciplined organisations.
5. The monks travelled to different places preaching the teachings of Buddha.
6. It received royal patronage including from Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Ashoka, Kanisha and Harshavardhana.

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Causes of the Decline of Buddhism in India

1. Split into Mahayana and Hinayana weakened the religion.
2. There was corruption among the latter monks. They gave up austerity and indulged in luxuries. Moral standards deteriorated.
3. Royal patronage for Buddhism declined after the end of the Gupta dynasty around 650 AD.
4. Orthodox Hinduism became more popular especially due to the works of Kumarila Bhatt and Adi Shankara.
5. The invasions by the Huns and later by the Islamic armies further declined the influence of Buddhism in the subcontinent.

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Gautam Buddha – Life & Teachings [Ancient Indian History]

NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC Civil Services Exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about the rise and spread of Buddhism in ancient India.
Facts about the Buddha

• Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha.
• Buddha was born as Prince Siddhartha at Lumbini near Kapilavastu (in present Nepal) in 566 BC.
• He was the son of Suddhodhana and Mahamaya. Suddhodhana was the chief of the Sakya clan. Due to this, Buddha was also known as ‘Sakyamuni’.
1. His mother died either giving birth to him or after seven days. Siddhartha was brought up by his maternal aunt, Prajapati Gautami. This gave him the name ‘Gautama’.
2. He was married to Yashodhara and had a son, Rahula.
3. He left his home at the age of 29 to become an ascetic. This event is called Mahabhishkramana.
4. The idea of renunciation occurred to the Buddha after he saw four different states of man – sick man, old man, corpse and ascetic.
5. Buddha wandered for seven years and at the age of 35 attained enlightenment at Uruvela while meditating under a banyan tree on the banks of the river Niranjana. This tree came to be known as ‘Bodhi tree’ and the place became Bodh Gaya (in Bihar).
6. He gave his first sermon at Sarnath near Varanasi. This event is called Dharmachakra Pravartana/ Dhammachakkappavattana.
7. He died in 483 BC under a Sal tree in Kushinagar (in UP). This event is called Mahaparinirvana.
8. The term ‘Buddha’ means ‘enlightened one’.
9. Important contemporaries of Buddha were Mahavira Jaina, Kings Prasenjit, Bimbisara and Ajatasatru.

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Buddhist Philosophy/Teachings of the Buddha

1. It teaches the Middle Path renouncing extreme step like indulgence and strict abstinence.
2. The four noble truths (Arya satya) in Buddhism are:
1. The world is full of sorrow.
2. Desire is the root cause of all sorrow.
3. Sorrow can be conquered by conquering desire.
4. Desire can be conquered by following the eight-fold paths (Ashtangirka Marga).

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1. Eight-fold path are:
1. Right understanding
2. Right resolve
3. Right speech
4. Right action
5. Right living
6. Right efforts
7. Right thought
8. Right self-concentration.

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1. The Tri Ratnas of Buddhism are: Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.
1. Buddha: highest spiritual potential in every one.
2. Dhamma: the teachings of Buddha (Pali for Sanskrit Dharma or righteousness)
3. Sangha: order of monks who follow Buddhism.
2. Buddha did not believe in god or soul.
3. Stressed on karma and ahimsa.
4. He was against the varna system. Buddha taught in Pali.
5. Buddhism spread to several countries outside India. China adopted Buddhism in the 1st century AD.

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Jainism – Vardhaman Mahavira [Ancient Indian History]

NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about the rise and spread of Jainism in ancient India.

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Origin of Jainism

1. Jainism is a very ancient religion. As per some traditions, it is as old as the Vedic religion.
2. The Jain tradition has a succession of great teachers or Tirthankaras.
3. There were 24 Tirthankaras the last of which was Vardhaman Mahavira.
4. The first Tirthankara is believed to be Rishabhanath or Rishabhadev.
5. The 23rd Tirthankara was Parshvanatha who was born in Varanasi. He may have lived in the 8th or 7th century BC.
6. All the Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas by birth.

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Vardhaman Mahavira (539- 467 B.C.)

1. Considered the last Tirthankara.
2. He was born at Kundagrama near Vaisali.
3. His parents were Kshatriyas. Father – Siddhartha (Head of Jnatrika Clan); Mother – Trishala (Sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka). (Chetaka’s daughter married Haryanka King Bimbisara).
4. He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter Anojja or Priyadarsana.
5. At the age of 30, Vardhaman renounced his home and became a wandering ascetic.
6. He also observed self-mortification.
7. After 13 years of penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Jnan. He attained this at Jimbhikagrama village under a sal tree aged 42. This is called Kaivalya. Thereafter, he was called Mahavira, Jina, Jitendriya (one who conquered his senses), Nigrantha (free from all bonds) and Kevalin.
8. He preached his teachings for 30 years and died at Pava (near Rajagriha) aged 72.

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Causes of the rise of Jainism

1. Vedic religion had become highly ritualistic.
2. Jainism was taught in Pali and Prakrit thus was more accessible to the common man as compared to Sanskrit.
3. It was accessible to people of all castes.
4. Varna system had rigidified and people of the lower castes led miserable lives. Jainism offered them an honourable place.
5. About 200 years after the death of Mahavira, a great famine in the Ganga valley prompted Chandragupta Maurya and Bhadrabahu (last Acharya of the undivided Jain sangha) to migrate to Karnataka. Jainism spread to Southern India after that.

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Teachings of Jainism

1. Mahavira rejected Vedic principles.
2. He did not believe in God’s existence. According to him, the universe is a product of the natural phenomenon of cause and effect.
3. He believed in Karma and transmigration of the soul. The body dies but the soul does not.
4. One will be punished or rewarded as per one’s karma.
5. Advocated a life of austerity and non-violence.
6. Stressed on equality but did not reject the caste system, unlike Buddhism. But he also said that man may be ‘good’ or ‘bad’ as per his actions and not birth.
7. Asceticism was taken to a great length. Starvation, nudity and self-mortification were expounded.
8. Two elements of the world: Jiva (conscious) and Atma (unconscious).

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1. Triratnas of Jainism:
1. Right faith
2. Right knowledge
3. Right conduct (observance of five vows)
1. Ahimsa (non-violence)
2. Satya (truth)
3. Asteya (no stealing)
4. Parigraha (no acquiring property)
5. Brahmacharya (abstinence)

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Split in Jainism

1. When Bhadrabahu left for South India, Sthulabahu remained in the North with his followers.
2. Sthulabahu changed the code of conduct and said that white clothes could be worn. Thus, split Jainism into two sects:
1. Swetambaras: White-clad; Northerners
2. Digambaras: Sky-clad (naked); Southerners

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Jain Councils

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First council

1. Held at Pataliputra in the 3rd century BC.
2. Presided by Sthulabahu.

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Second Council

1. Held at Vallabhi in Gujarat in the 5th century BC.
2. Presided by Devardhigani.
3. 12 Angas were compiled here.

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Royal patrons of Jainism

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South India

1. Kadamba dynasty
2. Ganga dynasty
3. Amoghavarsha
4. Kumarapala (Chalukya dynasty)

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North India

1. Bimbisara
2. Ajatasatru
3. Chandragupta Maurya
4. Bindusara
5. Kharavela

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The Edicts Of Ashoka [Ancient Indian History]

 
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC Civil Services Exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about Ashoka’s edicts which are an important aspect of ancient Indian history in the IAS exam syllabus.
The great Emperor Ashoka, the third monarch of the Maurya dynasty converted to Buddhism after witnessing the horrific effects of war in Kalinga. He became a champion and patron of Buddhism and strove to spread Dhamma throughout his empire and beyond. He erected pillars and edicts all over the subcontinent and even in modern-day Afghanistan, Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan to spread the Buddha’s word. James Prinsep, a British antiquary and colonial administrator was the first person to decipher Ashoka’s edicts. These inscriptions are the first tangible evidence of Buddhism.
They were kept in public places and along trade routes so that maximum number of people would read them. More than religious discourses, they talk about the moral duties of the people, how to conduct life, Ashoka’s desire to be a good and benevolent ruler, and about Ashoka’s work towards this end.
These inscriptions can be classified into three:-
Pillar edicts, Major rock edicts and Minor rock edicts.

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Pillar Edicts

1. There are seven pillar edicts.
2. Two types of stones are used: spotted white sandstone (from Mathura) and buff coloured sandstone and quartzite (from Amaravati).
3. All the pillars are monoliths (carved out of from stone).
4. They have been found from different places like Kandahar (Afghanistan), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan), Delhi, Vaishali and Champaran (Bihar), Sarnath and Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh), Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh), and Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh).
5. Fragments of the same edict are found in different places.
6. Many pillars are as high as 50 feet high and weigh as much as 50 tons.
7. The pillars depict animals such as elephants and lions, and wheels and lotuses which are all significant symbols in Buddhism.

The following table gives the Edict number and what it talks about.

Edict	Talks about
Pillar Edict I	Ashoka’s principle of protecting his people.
Pillar Edict II	Dhamma
Pillar Edict III	Avoiding practices of cruelty, sin, harshness, pride and anger among his subjects.
Pillar Edict IV	Responsibilities of the Rajukas.
Pillar Edict V	List of animals and birds that should not be killed on certain days. Another list which mentions animals that should never be killed.
Pillar Edict VI	Dhamma policy of the State.
Pillar Edict VII	Ashoka’s work for fulfilling Dhamma. Tolerance for all sects.

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Major Rock Edicts


There are 14 major rock edicts.

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Ashoka’s major rock edicts

Edict	Talks about
Major Rock Edict I	Prohibits animal slaughter and bans festive gathering.
Major Rock Edict II	Care for man and animals. Mentions the Pandyas, Satyapuras and Keralaputras of South India.

Major Rock Edict III	Generosity to Brahmins. About Yuktas, Pradeshikas and Rajukas who would go every five years to different parts of his empire to spread Dhamma.
Major Rock Edict IV	Dhammaghosha (sound of Dhamma/righteousness) over Bherighosha (sound of war).
Major Rock Edict V	About Dhammamahamatras. Talks about treating slaves right.
Major Rock Edict VI	King’s desire to know about his people’s conditions. About welfare measures.
Major Rock Edict VII	Tolerance for all religions.
Major Rock Edict VIII	Ashoka’s first visit to Bodh Gaya and the Bodhi tree (his first Dhamma Yatra).
Major Rock Edict IX	Condemns popular ceremonies.
Major Rock Edict X	Disapproves of the individual’s desire for fame and glory and stresses on Dhamma.
Major Rock Edict XI	Elaborates on Dhamma.
Major Rock Edict XII	Tolerance for all religions and sects.
Major Rock Edict XIII	Mentions victory over Kalinga. Mentions Ashoka’s Dhamma victory over Greek Kings Antiochus of Syria (Amtiyoko), Ptolemy of Egypt (Turamaye), Magas of Cyrene (Maka), Antigonus of Macedon (Amtikini), Alexander of Epirus (Alikasudaro). Also mentions Pandyas, Cholas, etc.
Major Rock Edict XIV	Engraving of inscriptions installed in various parts of country.

 
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Minor Rock Edicts

1. Minor rock edicts are found on 15 rocks across the country and in Afghanistan also.
2. Ashoka uses his name only in four of these places namely, Maski, Brahmagiri (Karnataka), Gujjara (MP) and Nettur (AP).

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Languages used

1. In eastern part of the empire, Magadhi language in Brahmi script is used. (Magadhi is the dialect of Prakrit found in Magadha).
2. In western parts of the Mauryan Empire, Prakrit in kharoshti script is used.
3. Major Rock Edict XIII contains an extract in Greek and Aramaic as well.

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An example is given below:
Major Rock Edict VI
Beloved of the Gods speaks thus: Twelve years after my coronation I started to have Dhamma edicts written for the welfare and happiness of the people, and so that not transgressing them they might grow in the Dhamma. Thinking: “How can the welfare and happiness of the people be secured?” I give my attention to my relatives, to those dwelling far, so I can lead them to happiness and then I act accordingly. I do the same for all groups. I have honoured all religions with various honours. But I consider it best to meet with people personally.

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